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HIGHER OFFICER SCHOOL OF AIR COMBAT OF THE RED ARMY AIR FORCE

Title: Buy the book "Instructions for air combat of fighter aircraft (IVBIA-45)": feed_id: 5296 pattern_id: 2266 book_author: _not bad book_name: Instructions for air combat of fighter aircraft (IVBIA-45)

There has long been a need to generalize the combat experience of fighter aviation in the field of forms and techniques of air combat, both single and group, up to and including the squadron.

This Instruction is a document summarizing the combat experience of air combat in fighter aircraft, and gives every fighter pilot the opportunity to creatively use techniques and methods of air combat. Considering that the Higher Officer School of Air Combat of the Red Army Air Force, in the course of training fighter pilots, has not yet had a document summarizing the combat experience of fighter aviation air combat and training methods,

I order:

This Instruction for Air Combat of Fighter Aviation should be considered the main guide for the training and education of fighter pilots undergoing advanced training at school.

Head of the Higher Officer School of Air Combat of the Red Army Air Force, Guard Major General of Aviation Zhukov.

School Chief of Staff Lieutenant Colonel Rytsk

I. GENERAL PROVISIONS

§ 1. Fighter aircraft are the main means of fighting for air supremacy and have as their main purpose the destruction of enemy aircraft in air battles.

§ 2. Fighter aircraft fight for air supremacy in order to protect ground troops and other types of aircraft from air strikes.

§ 3. To successfully conduct air battles, fighter pilots must be able to provide themselves with the necessary reserves of altitude and speed, as well as correctly combine maneuvers with the fire of their aircraft.

Victory in an air battle is achieved through an active attack on the enemy and maximum use of the flight-tactical capabilities of the fighter aircraft.

Offensive air combat tactics are based on the ability of pilots:

Carry out surprise attacks on enemy aircraft;

Make maximum use of maneuver in the vertical plane;

Quickly and expediently maneuver and destroy the enemy from the first attack;

Interact with each other within a pair, as well as between pairs, flights and squadrons;

Make full use of the strengths of your own material unit and the weaknesses of the enemy’s material unit;

Accurately follow the orders and instructions of your commanders in the air and on the ground.

§ 4. A surprise attack allows a fighter to destroy an enemy aircraft before he is able to take measures to protect himself.

To attack the enemy suddenly, you need to detect him first and remain unnoticed until you open fire on him.

To achieve surprise in an attack, it is necessary to make maximum and competent use of: the sun, clouds, haze, the background of the terrain and the enemy’s dead sectors of vision.

A necessary condition for achieving surprise is also to fly in divided combat formations, quickly approach the enemy and inflict simultaneous attacks on him from different directions.

§ 5. Vertical maneuver provides pilots with the opportunity to quickly acquire the initiative to attack in air combat, forestall the enemy in occupying an advantageous starting position for launching an attack, and force him to take the defensive.

It is completely unacceptable to switch to combat in the horizontal plane on fighters that have high maneuverability in the vertical plane, as this quickly leads to loss of initiative and unnecessary losses in battle.

§ 6. A quick and expedient maneuver provides the possibility of sudden destruction of the enemy.

A sudden, swift and daring attack morally suppresses the enemy, causes him confusion, does not give him the opportunity to prepare to repel the attack and, as a rule, leads to the destruction of the enemy.

Each attack must be carried out decisively and persistently to extremely close ranges.

Fire should be aimed and in bursts of such duration that ensure economical consumption of ammunition and destruction of the enemy from the first attack.

You need to shoot at the vital parts of the plane, i.e. the engine, gas tanks and crew.

Indirect fire unmasks the attacker and leads to wasted ammunition.

If the attack is unsuccessful, you need to quickly take the starting position for a second attack, persistently seeking to destroy the enemy.

§ 7. The ability of pilots to interact in pairs, flights, and squadrons allows them to quickly win even over a numerically superior air enemy and eliminate the possibility of an attack from their side.

The fighter, being an offensive weapon, can only hit the enemy when flying towards him, only by attacking.

If a fighter (group) finds itself in a position of attack; and cannot return fire to the enemy, then his necessary maneuver will be to go under the protection of his partner (group), and the partner (group) is obliged to immediately repel the attack.

The essence of interaction in combat is mutual support, assistance and revenue for individual aircraft, pairs, flights, and groups. The attacks of one (group) must be covered or supported by others in order to build up the blow and eliminate the possibility of an attack from the enemy.

The most effective interaction will be when the group is provided with clear and continuous control from the commander. Victory in battle is achieved through the coordinated actions of aircraft in pairs, pairs in a flight, and flights in a group.

A well-organized search in a group and notification of a detected enemy, competent formation of battle formations that ensure the most effective search, and the allocation of a high-altitude echelon are the best means of protection against surprise enemy attacks.

§ 8. Full use of the strengths of one’s own material part and the weaknesses of the enemy’s material part makes it possible to (put him in disadvantageous conditions.

It is necessary to pull the enemy to unfavorable heights for him, where the flight-tactical qualities of his aircraft are worse compared to other altitudes, and the flight-tactical characteristics of our aircraft will be the best. This is ensured by seizing the initiative of the battle, achieving superiority over the enemy at the beginning of the battle and maintaining it during the battle. It is necessary to take into account the fire superiority of some enemy aircraft and, when choosing a direction of attack, use attacks against them that would not give them the opportunity to use their fire superiority. Knowledge of the tactics of enemy aircraft, their flight tactical capabilities, favorite and avoided techniques in combat, viewing angles and vulnerable spots makes it possible to discern the enemy’s maneuver and impose attacks on him that are unfavorable for him.

§ 9. Strict compliance with the orders and instructions of your commanders in the air and on the ground is a necessary condition for the successful completion of the battle.

The strictest discipline, high conscientiousness and honesty of the pilot, a sense of responsibility for comrades and the outcome of the battle must always be combined with high combat skill, the ability to take risks and readiness for self-sacrifice. Martial art and discipline are an inseparable whole, and the separation of one from the other leads to the fact that:

Courage turns into recklessness;

Combat audacity - a useless game with death;

Self-confidence is arrogance.

All actions of a pilot in combat must be only in the interests of his partner and group; the desire for personal victory, as a rule, leads to unnecessary losses and the loss of the battle of the group together.

§ 10. Selflessly devoted to the party Lenin-Stalin and the Socialist Motherland, a fighter pilot must have the following qualities of an air fighter:

Have a perfect command of piloting technique at all modes and altitudes, be able to maintain your place in the battle formation under any conditions, be able to take from your aircraft everything that it can give;

Be an excellent air shooter, be able to destroy the enemy from extended distances and from any position, be a master of the first strike;

Be brave, decisive and proactive, always seek battle with the enemy and, with cool confidence in your superiority, defeat him;

Be able to use cunning and deception in battle where the enemy least expects it;

Be able to conduct constant surveillance of the air, be the first to detect the enemy and force a fight on him;

Possess sobriety of calculation and the ability to make quick decisions;

Be able to navigate in any conditions and quickly restore orientation after an air battle;

Be physically resilient and able to withstand intense combat work at high altitudes, high speeds and during long dives;

Be able to quickly establish radio communication with each other and with the ground in flight and maintain it.

II. SEARCHING FOR AN ENEMY

§ 11. Search is the effort of a pilot or group, with the goal of detecting the enemy in order to impose a sudden battle on him in favorable conditions. The search is mandatory for every pilot in the air.

§ 12. Surveillance of airspace in order to search for the enemy must be:

Circular with an even distribution of attention throughout the entire sphere, with preferential viewing of those areas that provide the enemy with tactical benefits and the convenience of air camouflage (dead vision zones, direction to the sun, clouds, forests and mountains);

Continuous, from the moment you board the plane until taxiing to the parking lot;

Deep, i.e., providing the ability to detect the enemy at the maximum distance for vision based on the slightest signs.

§ 13. The distribution of surveillance over the sphere and its continuity are carried out by the distribution of surveillance zones, the creation of responsibility of aircraft crews for the timely detection of the enemy in the assigned area and control. You should especially check the state of airspace surveillance when returning from a combat mission over your territory. The reasons that reduce the search for the enemy in this case may be the following:

After prolonged stress, the pilot’s desire to rest appears due to weakening of attention;

On its territory in the rear, there are fewer ground-based guidance systems that would help the fighter to timely detect the enemy or warn him of the threat of attack;

Some complacency among pilots who believe that the threat of an attack far from the front line is unlikely;

The pilot is busy with signals from the ground, landing gear, and planning for landing.

§ 14. To ensure the depth of observation, it is necessary to present requirements for the flight crew regarding visibility, based on the physiological properties of the human body and especially vision.

A person can simultaneously observe space within an angle of 150°, but visual acuity in this field is uneven, it is greatest at the central beam and quickly decreases towards the periphery: beyond an angle of +30° it is less than ¼% of the best vision. And only within + 30° a person is able to notice a dark point, which appears to be a distant plane (see Fig. No. 1).

The process of observing airspace should be organized in such a way that, if possible, the entire sphere can be examined with the specified narrow sector + 30° by turning the head and eyes, however, the possibilities here are also limited.

Experience shows that without great tension a person is able to turn his head no more than 70°, and with great tension, with some rotation of the shoulders, no more than 100°. High stress is unacceptable for a long time, as it is accompanied by fatigue and a decrease in the quality of vision.

The angle of rotation of the eye normally does not exceed 30°; further displacement causes pain and rapid fatigue.

Taking into account the rotation of the head and eyes, as well as a field of view of a clear vision of 30°, the limits of the viewed area from the cockpit of a fighter aircraft are determined.

Fighter Pilot Vision Limits:

Consequently, even under great stress, the pilot of a single aircraft, having a viewing area of ​​160° to the right and left, is not able to regularly monitor the tail of his aircraft within +20° (see Fig. No. 2).

This area is visible with periodic turns of 15-20°, which should be done smoothly with small rolls. Sharp turns with large rolls unmask fighters, attracting the enemy's attention by increasing the area and abruptly changing position in space.

§ 15. Observation in pairs should be organized on the basis of the principle: in a group of fighter aircraft, each pilot provides observation and fire, first of all, to the other crew of the group, and then to himself. To accomplish this, it is advantageous for each pilot to shift the observation axis, i.e., the average direction, by approximately 30°, then it will be possible to view inwardly without much strain at an angle of 130 + 30 = 160°, counting from the axis of the aircraft.

Towards the outside, the viewing area is reduced by 30°, its size is 160 - 30 = 130°, but it is successfully observed by a partner.

However, there is a blind zone between aircraft in depth at three intervals: with an interval of 150 m, the blind zone is at a distance of 450 m, with an interval of 200 m, the blind zone is at a distance of 600 m (see Fig. No. 3).

Therefore, it is advantageous to maintain large intervals when searching.

For a better view of the rear hemisphere, the follower in a pair must periodically turn away by 15-20°.

§ 16. When searching for the enemy as a unit, the strike pair focuses its attention on searching for the main forces of the enemy, mainly in the front hemisphere with the aim of striking; the wing pair focuses its attention on searching for enemy fighters, especially in the rear hemisphere, in order to repel a possible attack from them.

§ 17. When searching for the enemy by a squadron, the strike group (flight) searches for the enemy’s main forces and strikes at them; the covering group, ensuring the actions of the strike group from possible attacks from enemy fighters, focuses its attention on searching for the enemy in the upper and rear hemispheres. The reserve group (free maneuver group) searches for the enemy in the upper hemisphere and provides cover for the group from possible attacks from the upper hemisphere.

§ 18. The search for the enemy at night can be carried out both in conjunction with searchlights and without them. When searching for an enemy on a moonlit night, it is more advantageous to be in relation to his probable location in the direction opposite to the moon and below, in order to observe the enemy against the background of the moon. If the field is made above the clouds illuminated by the moon, then it is more advantageous to be above the probable flight of the enemy in order to observe him against the background of the clouds.

On a dark night, the search becomes much more difficult. Detection of enemy aircraft by exhaust is possible at a distance of no more than 400-500 m.

§ 19. At dusk and dawn, to search, you must be on the dark side of the horizon and below in order to see the enemy against the background of the light part of the horizon. If the situation forces you to be on the side of the light part of the horizon, then it is necessary to be below the probable flight altitude of the enemy in order to be projected against the dark background of the earth, and to see the enemy against the sky.

§ 20. The quality of mutual information about the air situation and especially about the appearance of the enemy depends on the ability of pilots to quickly transmit the necessary information to their partner, which is only possible with short, accurate and clear signals. The first to discover the enemy must immediately convey to the commander: where the enemy is, the number of aircraft, the type and nature of the enemy’s actions.

The best way to obtain information about a detected enemy would be:

a) to indicate direction:

front right,

back right,

back left,

front left;

b) to indicate height:

below 500 m,

above 1000 and;

c) to indicate quantity:

five, etc.;

d) to indicate the type:

fighters,

bombers.

Example: in front, on the right, above 1000, three, Yu-88, which means that in front, on the right, with an elevation of 1000 m, three aircraft of the Yu-88 type were detected.

§ 21. Viewing all areas of the sphere must be timely. The pilot must know the time required for the enemy to cover the distance from the moment he is detected until he reaches the firing position (500 m).

The section of the path on which it is possible to detect the enemy with average training will be 4000 m-500 m = 3500 m. This section is traversed simultaneously by both aircraft, so the speed of approach of the aircraft will depend on the mutual direction of their movement.

With the speed of modern fighters 600-650 km/h or an average of 175 m per second, the closing speed on a collision course is determined by the sum 1754-175=350 m/sec. The approach time in this case will be 3500: 350 = 10 seconds; on crossing courses, the time of approach can be considered practically dependent on the speed of the enemy. The approach time will be 3500:175=20 seconds; on passing courses, the surge speed is determined by the difference in aircraft speeds, which does not exceed 200 km/h. or 55 m per second. The approach time will be 3500:55= 60 seconds. or 1 minute.

In this case, the most stringent standards are calculated for the case of maximum speeds.

§ 22. The distance of 500 m is the firing distance. Letting the enemy get closer to you than this distance is dangerous. A sphere with a radius of 500 m around the aircraft is a dangerous zone for a fighter pilot in all cases of flight.

The calculation shows that the enemy is attacking at a speed of 550 km/h. (on a collision course and at the same altitude), will cover a distance of 1000 m to the opening fire zone of 500 m to the attacked aircraft, having a speed of 450 km/h, in 4 seconds.

Distance of 2000 m in 8 seconds.

» at 3000 m in 12 sec.

» at 4000 m in 16 seconds.

» at 5000 m in 20 sec.

On passing courses, it will cover a distance of 1000 m in 36 seconds.

Distance of 2000 m in 1 minute. 12 sec.

» at 3000 m in 1 min. 48 sec.

» at 4000 m in 2 minutes. 24 sec.

» at 5000 m in 3 minutes.

At a 4/4 angle the distance will be:

1000 m in 7 seconds.

2000 m in 14 sec.

3000 m in 21 sec.

4000 m in 28 sec.

5000 m in 35 sec.

§ 23. In order for the observation to be circular in scope, continuous, deep and at the same time meet the specified standards, it is necessary to adhere to a certain sequence in the inspection.

It is most convenient to lead the central line of sight along the following route:

Forward-left with a 20° shift from the observation axis, starting the inspection from above, then

Down and back to inspect the rear portion of the left hemisphere from bottom to top, then

Inspect the side section of the left hemisphere down, then

Re-inspect the anterior section from bottom to top and

Proceed to inspection of the zenith.

The right hemisphere is examined in the same order (see Fig. No. 4).

Inspection of the sphere in the specified sequence by a moderately trained pilot is carried out in 15-20; sec.

§ 24. The enemy should be looked for in the distance, in the depths of space, peering at him, straining his vision. Having made sure that there is no enemy in the depths and on the horizon (far in front of you), you need to move your gaze towards yourself in all three directions. Particular attention should be paid back to the cone of dead vision, while the gaze from the depths of space should instantly be transferred to extremely short distances - under the tail of your aircraft, to inspect the rear hemisphere.

§ 25. The search for an enemy can be private or general. Private search - search for an enemy who must be destroyed according to a combat order, for example, a flight to intercept and destroy a reconnaissance aircraft, if the latter is not in sight at the time of departure.

If the scout is detected, the private search ends.

From the moment of landing in the cockpit, during the private search period, at the moment of approach, throughout the entire flight and combat until the moment the aircraft lands and taxis into shelter, the pilot continuously conducts a general search for other aircraft in order to exclude a surprise attack from a previously undetected enemy and the possibility of an attack on him.

§ 26. The importance of search is great: whoever noticed the enemy first has an undeniable advantage in battle:

He anticipates the enemy in taking an advantageous position for attack;

It is easier for him to achieve surprise by using the sun and clouds;

He has a greater opportunity to start the battle with an attack, take the initiative of the battle into his own hands and force the enemy to start the battle on defense.

§ 27. Basic methods of detecting the enemy:

Visual observation - an aircraft is detected as a point at a distance of 3000-5000 m, and a group of bombers up to 7000 m;

Special radar installations that allow, under any weather conditions, at any time of day or year, to monitor the air and detect targets at a considerable distance.

In this case, it is possible to determine the location of the aircraft at the time of detection, the course and ground speed of the aircraft (group), approximately the flight altitude, to distinguish the flight of a single aircraft from the flight of a group and approximately determine the composition of the latter.

§ 28. Additional signs of the presence or approach of enemy aircraft:

When flying into enemy territory, a sudden cessation of anti-aircraft fire indicates the approach of enemy fighters;

The appearance of enemy fighters over the front line or rear objectives and the desire to impose combat on covering fighters often precedes the appearance of enemy bombers in a given area;

The explosions of friendly anti-aircraft artillery shells indicate the presence or approach of enemy aircraft in the area. Visibility of ruptures is 10-15 km.

§ 29. Any aircraft detected in the air must be considered enemy until its identity is clearly established.

When aircraft are detected, you need to carefully inspect the area and determine the grouping, number of enemy aircraft and the nature of their actions.

§ 30. Combat formations during the search period must be open and echeloned at altitude so as not to lose mutual fire support between pilots and echelons and not to complicate the independent observation of the air by each individual pilot.

§ 31. When searching, the flight route must be constructed in such a way that the tail of the aircraft faces the sun as little as possible. If the flight is carried out from the sun, then you cannot go in a straight line, it is necessary to make bends in the direction of the path so that the sun is alternately on the right and then on the left, but never behind the aircraft; or leave with belittlement due to high speed.

When searching, it is advantageous to be between the sun and the probable location of the enemy.

§ 32. The choice of flight altitude is of great importance for the search. It is impossible to walk at the same altitude and with the same route; it is necessary to change the route during the entire flight, both in altitude and in direction. The commander of the pair provides a detailed orientation, while the follower provides a general orientation.

§ 33. In the presence of continuous clouds, the search flight must be carried out:

In the lower edge of the clouds, periodically descending by 400-500 m to view the space under the clouds;

When flying above the clouds, it is more advantageous to stay higher in order to see the enemy against the background of the clouds;

Flying in haze should be avoided if the sky is clear above.

A pilot walking in the haze cannot see anything, but an enemy located above can detect him completely freely.

§ 34. On cloudy and foggy days, when visibility is limited, maneuvering when searching for the enemy should be significantly increased.

§ 35. Invaluable assistance in searching for the enemy can be provided by ground-based radio guidance equipment and signal firing of anti-aircraft artillery, which increase the “pilot’s field of view.”

§ 36. Guidance from the ground is aimed at ensuring the interception of enemy aircraft and the meeting of our fighters with them in conditions favorable for conducting air combat.

§ 37. Guidance from the ground is carried out:

With the help of radar installations, observing the flight of enemy aircraft and friendly fighters, it is possible to target an invisible enemy, transmitting instructions through a guidance station;

Guidance radio stations located in the area of ​​operations of our fighters;

Fired by anti-aircraft artillery, the explosions of ZA shells are used to indicate to fighters where to fly to meet the enemy.

§ 38. When providing other types of aviation, the latter must contribute to the timely detection of the enemy. Notification of a detected enemy is made by radio and is duplicated by firing tracer bullets or missiles in the direction of the enemy.

§ 39. A fighter pilot must know for sure that no means of navigation relieve him of the need to conduct air surveillance, and the success of his flight largely depends on a correctly organized and executed search for the enemy.

III. PERIODS OF AIR COMBAT

§ 40. An air battle with a detected enemy consists of the following periods:

Getting closer to the enemy;

Exit from the battle.

Rapprochement

§ 41. Approach is the actions of the pilot from the moment of detection of the enemy until the transition to attack.

§ 42. Each pilot in a combat flight is required to be able to quickly distinguish his own aircraft from enemy aircraft, and in relation to the latter, distinguish by type in order to understand their combat properties.

§ 43. Distinguishing aircraft and determining their type is made by appearance. It can be carried out from a range of 1000-2000 m according to general, group and individual characteristics.

§ 44. General features inherent in all enemy aircraft: their characteristic angular outlines, absence or small fairings between the wing and fuselage, long fuselages. Group characteristics relate to a specific type of aviation. Enemy fighters have a thin end of the fuselage, a semicircular tail fin (ME-109) or a rounded trapezoid (FP-190). Enemy bombers have long, tall fuselages and no protruding cockpits behind the wings.

Individual characteristics relate to one particular type of aircraft.

It is most convenient to divide all aircraft into three groups:

1. By number of motors:

a) single-engine, which include fighters and obsolete aircraft XIII-126, Yu87;

b) twin-engine - ME-110, DO-215–217, etc.;

c) multi-engine-Yu-52, FP-Courier, etc.

2. According to the spacing of the tail vertical empennage:

a) single-keel-Yu-88. XE-111;

b) double-keel-DO-215–217.

3. By chassis:

a) with retractable landing gear;

b) with fixed landing gear.

§ 45. Identification is carried out according to individual characteristics inherent in each type of aircraft.

§ 46. In combat practice, the following methods should be used to determine the range to detected enemy aircraft:

Visual - based on the sense of depth of space;

Visual - by the number of observable details of the aircraft’s appearance;

According to the sight reticle.

§ 47. The first method of visually determining range is based on a sense of the depth of space and is the main one. The sense of depth in space is developed through systematic training.

The second method, determining the range by the number of observed details of the aircraft’s appearance, should be considered auxiliary.

The pilot must firmly remember that at a distance of 100 m he will observe:

Small details of the canopy structure, slits in the tail, the pilot's head, antenna;

At a distance of 200 m - rudders, ailerons, mast, interface of the canopy with the fuselage;

At a distance of 500 m, colored spots are visible separately, large parts of the aircraft (stabilizer, wings, fuselage).

At a distance of 1000 m, the aircraft appears as a distinct silhouette.

The third way is to determine the range using a sight reticle. To do this, you need to divide all enemy aircraft by size into 4 groups with some standardization of their sizes. At a distance of 1000 m, the target will occupy as many thousandths in the sight reticle as its size in meters.

The range is inversely proportional to the angular value of the target, i.e., by how many times the range decreases, by how many times the angular value in thousandths increases.

§ 48. Approaching a visible enemy must be done in such a way as to take an advantageous starting position for a surprise attack.

In the event of an unexpected meeting at close range, the attack must be carried out immediately and with the greatest assertiveness in order to seize the initiative and destroy the enemy.

§ 49. The main task when approaching is to achieve a covert approach and occupy an advantageous starting position for the attack.

§ 50. The fighter pilot must remember that the result of the attack depends on the quality of the approach. Therefore, the entire process of rapprochement must be built in the interests of the attack. Even at the beginning of the approach, the pilot must clearly and clearly imagine the attack and the way out of it and, in accordance with this, build his maneuver during the approach. If the approach is carried out in isolation from the subsequent attack, then the attack, as a rule, will be ineffective or even impossible.

§ 51. As a result of approaching, the pilot is obliged to take a position in relation to the enemy that would ensure the following requirements:

Possibility of achieving surprise;

Lack of enemy fire resistance or its low effectiveness;

Minimum distance;

Small angle;

Possibility of firing for a long time;

Convenience and safety of exiting an attack;

The ability to quickly repeat an attack if the enemy is not destroyed during the first attack.

§ 52. To achieve surprise, you should approach and build your maneuver to reach the enemy from behind the clouds, along the edge of clouds or haze, from the side of the sun, from the side of the dead cones of vision of aircraft, and when flying below the enemy, use the background of the terrain. During the maneuver, one must not hesitate; the approach must be carried out secretly and at the same time quickly: the faster the distance to the enemy is covered, the less likely it is that the enemy will notice the threat and prepare to repel the attack. The speed of approach makes up for the lack of stealth.

§ 53. In conditions where surprise is achieved not through secrecy, but through rapid approach, it is advantageous to have a significant advantage in height when approaching the enemy begins.

In this case, the fighter, developing high speed in a dive, will quickly go on the attack.

§ 54. Having discovered an enemy, it is not always advantageous to immediately approach him. In a number of cases, it is advantageous to move away from the enemy to the side in order to provide yourself with the opportunity to achieve a covert attack, namely:

When the enemy has tactical superiority;

When the enemy has quantitative superiority and the situation does not require an immediate attack;

When surprise cannot be achieved from a given direction.

§ 55. If fighters fly in a group, then based on the air situation, the assigned task and the balance of forces, the commander can decide to approach and fight with the enemy or all the aircraft, or part of the forces.

If part of the forces is enough to destroy the enemy, then the other part does not enter the battle, but gains altitude, takes a position from above and ensures the actions of the attacking group. The same group, being in full view of the enemy and diverting his attention to itself, can help the attacking group achieve surprise in an attack.

§ 56. When a pair detects the enemy, the latter must approach the enemy simultaneously with both aircraft and, having approached, attack either simultaneously or sequentially with one under the cover of the other.

§ 57. When an enemy is detected by a flight or squadron, by the decision of the commander, the flight (squadron) can approach and attack simultaneously or in just one pair (group).

In the latter case, the covering pair (group) gains altitude and ensures the attack of the striking pair (group) and, if necessary, increases the blows of the attacking pair (group).

§ 58. It is unprofitable to engage in battle with all forces, especially with a small group of the enemy, even if the enemy is numerically superior and if he has superior altitude, it is advantageous to enter battle with part of the forces so that the other part of the forces can gain altitude and achieve tactical advantages over enemy.

Attack

§ 59. The attack consists of direct impact on the enemy with fire. All previous actions of the fighter pilot must be subordinated to fire control issues.

§ 60. The desire of the fighter pilot should be aimed at approaching the enemy within the range of actual fire and being in a position that would ensure the possibility of conducting aimed fire and immediately destroying the enemy.

§ 61. If the attacked person discovered the threat of attack too late, this means that he gave the enemy the opportunity to attack himself suddenly; Its main task in this case will be to disrupt the attacker’s attack with a maneuver that excludes the possibility of the attacker conducting aimed fire and makes it possible to provide fire resistance to him.

The bomber's actions will consist of maneuvering the aircraft to disrupt the fighter's attack, and maneuvering the mobile weapon to concentrate fire on the attacker.

The fighter's actions will consist of performing a maneuver that would make it possible to exclude aimed fire and contrast the fire of his stationary weapon with the fire of the attacker.

§ 62. An attack against an air enemy consists of the following stages:

Exit to the firing position;

Firing position;

Exit from the attack.

(See Fig. No. 5).

The order of the stages of the attack remains constant in all cases, and the duration can change based on the current air situation.

§ 63. The timing of reaching a firing position can be varied, based on the chosen direction of attack and the relative position of the opponents. If the direction of the attacker’s flight is close to the direction of the subsequent attack, then reaching the firing position is carried out in the minimum time and with a slight change in the direction of flight. With an increase in the angle of rotation towards the target, the time to reach the firing position increases. To accurately enter a firing position, it is necessary to take into account and combine the excess (lower) over the enemy, the distance from him, your speed and the speed of the enemy.

§ 64. The firing position is the decisive stage of the attack, since the outcome of the attack by fire is decided here. If the enemy did nothing to eliminate it before entering the firing position, then, as a rule, he will be attacked suddenly.

§ 65. The duration of the firing position in time depends on the chosen direction of attack (on passing courses, at small angles, with a small difference in speed, it will be greatest).

The firing position of an attacked bomber is significantly larger than that of an attacking fighter, since the bomber, having movable firing points, can fire even when the fighter, having ceased fire, is in close proximity to the bomber at the moment of exiting the attack, having its firing points directed away from the enemy. (See Fig. No. 6).

This advantage of the bomber forces the attacking fighter to make every effort to destroy the enemy from the first attack and, thereby reducing his firing position, reduce his fire resistance to a minimum.

A surprise attack and destruction of the enemy from the first attack makes it possible to completely eliminate fire resistance.

§ 66. Actions of a fighter pilot at a firing position:

Rough aim;

Precise aiming;

Firing.

(See Fig. No. 7).

§ 67. Rough aiming - directing the fighter’s weapon towards the target. During this period, the pilot still cannot fire, since after the maneuver to reach the firing position, the aircraft still maintains its inertial movement in the direction of the maneuver.

§ 68. Accurate aiming - giving the weapon the position in the vertical and horizontal plane necessary to hit the target. To determine the aiming point, the pilot must establish the enemy’s speed, angle and distance to him.

§ 69. Firing is the most important and decisive stage of the firing position. Having entered the firing position, the pilot, regardless of anything, must make every effort to destroy the enemy. The fire and aerobatic training of a fighter pilot should be aimed at ensuring that his actions at the firing position are calm and confident.

The quality of the firing position largely depends on the fire training of the fighter pilot (see Fig. No. 8).

§ 70. Exit from the attack is carried out:

If further firing is inappropriate;

When placed in a disadvantageous position;

In case of danger of collision.

The fighter's task is to leave the enemy's fire zone in the shortest possible time with a maneuver that ensures access to the next firing position in the minimum time.

If the enemy is shot down, the attack stops.

§ 71. The high speeds of modern aircraft significantly reduce the time of attack from the front hemisphere and from the side and significantly increase the angular speeds of the fighter and the side of the attacking aircraft, which makes aiming more difficult and worsens the quality of shooting in general.

The duration of an attack in time can be increased by increasing the firing distance, but as the latter increases, the probability of a hit decreases.

§ 72. With continuous aiming of the sight at an enemy aircraft flying straight at a constant speed, when attacking it from behind from the side and at the same altitude, the firing range, lead in thousandths and the angular relative speed of the fighter moving towards the target will change (at the speed of the enemy , equal to 140 m/sec., the attacker’s speed is equal to 170 m/sec.) as follows:

If an attack is made from the front from the side at the same altitude at the same speeds, then the firing range, lead in thousandths and the angular relative speed of the fighter on the target will change as follows:

If we take into account that a well-trained fighter pilot can keep a target in sight at an angular relative speed of no more than 10° per second, then the above calculations show that the success of an attack can only be counted on if it is carried out on a passing course.

When choosing the opening range of fire, it is necessary to be guided by the probability of a hit and the angular relative speed at which the attacker can keep the target at the aiming point.

§ 73. The mode of fire in air combat is of particular importance. Due to the limited ammunition on a modern fighter, the pilot is obliged to use it carefully so as not to find himself without ammunition at the decisive moment of the battle.

The consumption of ammunition must be combined with the need for the most careful aiming, with complete confidence in the possibility of hitting the enemy. In addition, the pilot must always have an emergency supply of ammunition in the amount of 20% in case of combat upon return.

§ 74. The main measure to reduce the consumption of ammunition is to limit the length of the queue to the strictly required dimensions. The required burst length depends on the distance and angular movement of the target and can be divided into short, medium and long.

A short burst lasts 0.5 seconds. and can be used at long firing ranges (over 300 m) and high angular relative velocities of the enemy (over 10° per second).

The average burst lasts up to 1 second. and can be used with precise aiming and at low angular relative velocities of the enemy (no more than 10° per second), when continuous aiming is possible.

A long queue lasts up to 2 seconds. and can be used at very low angular relative speeds of the enemy (2-3° per second) and short ranges (no more than 75-25 m). when it is possible to fire until the enemy is completely destroyed.

§ 75. Successful shooting is achieved only when the weapon is initially aimed using a sight.

As soon as the fire is opened, attention must be transferred to the track, looking through the sight reflector.

§ 76. Correcting shooting along the route requires great skill and training of the pilot. While observing the route, the pilot must continue to aim continuously. Having noticed how the route passes relative to the target, it is necessary to point the route towards the target with a smooth movement of the aircraft. If the track approaches the target, it is necessary to adjust the shooting; if the track moves away from the target, then stop shooting and aim again.

The only case sign of a hit is a break in the route at the target. A side sign can sometimes be an increase in the brightness of the path against the background of the target. Thus, the track is an auxiliary means when firing in air combat.

Collection

§ 77. Collection is carried out during the battle or at the end of it for:

Restoring battle formations;

Enemy pursuit organizations:

Exiting a battle if its course is unfavorable or redirecting it for action on other targets;

Return to the airfield.

§ 78. The assembly area is usually designated on the ground and is known to the pilots before departure. The collection command is given by the group commander by radio or by a signal from the aircraft's evolutions, indicating the square (if it was not indicated on the ground) and altitude.

The collection area is designated as a characteristic landmark that is well known to the pilots and clearly visible from the air.

§ 79. On the command “Gathering”, the commander leaves or delays the battle to the designated area and informs the flight commanders (pairs) of his location by radio. Pilots, pairs, flights, having received the command to gather, in the absence of a threat of attack, proceed to the assembly area, and if there is a threat of attack from the enemy, by counterattacks and use of moments when the enemy cannot attack at a given time, they break away from him and go to the assembly area . Crews (groups) located in more favorable conditions ensure separation of crews (groups) found in more difficult conditions from the enemy. Individual pairs that find themselves isolated from others use clouds and sun to break away from the enemy, following to the gathering area.

§ 80. The success of the collection depends on the speed of its execution. Effective assistance in a quick and organized collection can be provided by groups specially allocated for this purpose, fresh forces of our fighters and anti-aircraft artillery that have arrived. Quick assembly makes it possible to concentrate forces to strike intended targets, retarget fighters, or exit the battle in an organized manner and without losses.

§ 81. Individual aircraft or pairs that arrived at the assembly area and did not find their group there, ask the latter for its location and proceed to the specified area. Group location data can also be obtained from the ground.

In the absence of data on the location of the group, they increase speed (using the weather and flight conditions) and leave for their airfield.

Exit from battle

§ 82. Disengagement from battle takes place:

When fuel is consumed to a certain limit, ensuring a return to the nearest airfield;

When retargeting fighters for operations in another area;

If the course of the battle is unfavorable, with the permission of the commander who set the task.

§ 83. Exit from the battle is carried out to stop it.

Based on the air situation and combat conditions. exit from the battle can be reduced to:

To exit the battle with enemy fighters when there are tactical advantages over them;

To exit the battle with superior forces of enemy fighters if they have tactical advantages;

Towards the exit from the battle with the bombers.

§ 84. Exiting a battle in the presence of tactical advantages over the enemy does not present any particular difficulty: on the order (signal) of the commander, fighters, using excess speed and superior altitude, freely break away from the enemy, gather in groups, take their places in battle formation and follow for further actions. A reserve (free maneuver) pair (group), with decisive attacks from above, fetters the enemy’s maneuver and does not give him the opportunity to rise to the height of our aircraft.

§ 85. Exiting a battle with superior enemy forces, and when he has tactical advantages (superiority in height and speed), is much harder and more difficult and requires great effort on the part of the commander to withdraw the group from the battle without unnecessary losses. It is better to disengage from battle in such conditions under the cover of fresh forces or FORA.

§ 86. Exit from battle must be filled with decisive and timely counterattacks, clear fire interaction and end with an organized gathering.

If interaction is disrupted and difficult conditions are created, by the decision of the commander, flights and pairs break away from the enemy independently, using the sun, clouds and maneuvers that exclude the possibility of the enemy conducting aimed fire.

§ 87. The best maneuver for separating from the enemy, providing mutual cover in a pair, is the “scissors” maneuver.

It provides continuous cover for each other from possible attacks from behind and movement in the desired direction.

At the signal from the leading pair, they perform a maneuver as shown in Fig. No. 9.

§ 88. The same maneuver can be used by a link, performing it in pairs. In all cases, if possible, fighters must use the ZA cut-off zones to break away from the enemy.

§ 89. If an air battle is conducted by a sufficiently large group and the groups have retained their places in the battle formation in height by the time they leave the battle, then it is more advisable for the strike group to be the first to leave the battle under the cover of a covering group.

The exit from the battle of the covering group is covered by a pair (group) of reserve (free maneuver), which, having the most favorable tactical conditions, then freely breaks away from the enemy, using superiority in altitude and excess speed.

§ 90. The group commander must leave the battle first in order to ensure with his leadership an organized exit from the battle of the entire group. In some cases, the commander may be the last to leave the battle, covering the exit from the battle with his pair (group) of other pairs (groups). When the commander is the last to leave the battle, control of the group will, as a rule, be less effective or even disrupted, since the commander will be busy with the battle.

The enemy seeks to disable, first of all, the group commander and thereby deprive our group of control. Therefore, the commander should resort to the vain risk of being the last to leave the battle only when the current situation forces him to do so.

§ 91. Separation from the enemy in a dive should be used as a last resort, taking into account the good qualities of enemy aircraft in a dive. To go into a dive, it is necessary to choose a moment that would exclude the possibility of the enemy quickly switching to pursuit or, in extreme cases, would make it difficult.

If a dive is carried out under the threat of pursuit, it is necessary to avoid diving in a straight line, changing the angle and direction of the dive, making snakes, sliding, etc. Exiting a dive in a straight line cannot be allowed, since this creates good conditions for striking the enemy.

§ 92. Exiting a battle with a bomber does not present any difficulty and boils down to exiting the attack, since the bomber, fighting a defensive battle, is not capable of limiting the further actions of the fighter.

§ 93. The reasons for singles leaving a group battle may be: damage to the material, limiting the possibility of combat and injury to the pilot. A pilot who needs to disengage from combat is obliged to report this to the commander with a pre-agreed signal. Such transmissions cannot be made in clear text. The commander, having received a signal about the need to disengage from the battle, assesses the situation and makes a decision to disengage with the entire troupe (if it is small) or allocates a detachment to escort those leaving the battle to their territory or airfield.

§ 94. The use of ammunition or the malfunction of a weapon cannot serve as a reason for leaving a group battle, since this changes the balance of forces in favor of the enemy and puts the person leaving and the group in a dangerous position. Having reported this to the commander, the pilot, through the threat of attack, is obliged to support his comrades in battle.

IV. AIR COMBAT MANAGEMENT

§ 95. Due to the fact that the speed of modern aircraft has increased significantly, the situation in air combat becomes tense and rapidly changing.

This makes it much more difficult to control an air battle, especially when a significant number of aircraft are involved, and increases the role of the commander in battle.

The commander is obliged to give the pilots comprehensive instructions on the ground and think through their actions in the air so that combat control is continuous and most effective.

§ 96. Before receiving a combat mission, training pilots for air combat consists of studying:

Ground situation (front line, methods of interaction with one’s own defense and areas where the enemy’s defense is located, identification signals of friendly troops);

Air situation (actions of friendly and enemy aircraft on the route and in the area of ​​operations);

Area of ​​operation and weather conditions;

Areas and cut-off zones;

Airfields and landing sites closest to the front line;

Locations of direction-finding and direction-finding radio stations;

Locations of guidance stations, their call signs and the procedure for communicating with them.

§ 97. Before departure, fighter pilots must know:

Combat mission, which contributes to the reasonable manifestation of initiative within the framework of the assigned task and the ability to continue fulfilling the combat mission when the commander is incapacitated:

Takeoff procedure;

Location, altitude and procedure for collection after takeoff;

Route and flight profile;

Radio data (wave, call signs, radio signals and password);

The order of battle and your place in it;

Control signals and notification procedures when enemy aircraft are detected;

Identification signals and signals for interaction with aircraft;

Intended options for action (combat);

Collection area, procedure for collection and disengagement from battle;

Return and boarding procedures. The pilots' excellent knowledge of the procedure for completing the assigned mission and their actions under various options makes it much easier for the commander to control the battle.

§ 98. Air combat control is carried out:

Through continuous radio communication between aircraft, as well as between the group commander, the command post radio station and guidance radio stations;

Continuous surveillance of enemy air over the battlefield and on its territory.

§ 99. Air combat is controlled directly by the commander in the air. After the fighters are aimed at the enemy from the ground, the guidance radio station stops working and resumes it only if fresh enemy forces approach or when the threat of a surprise attack is created.

§ 100. Excessive interference from the ground in the control of air combat leads to lack of initiative and irresponsibility of commanders in the air, and often disorients them.

§ 101. The commander from the ground through the command radio station (KP radio station or guidance radio station) carries out:

Calling fighters to build up forces;

Guides fighters towards the enemy;

Brings his reserve into battle;

Indicates methods of action for fighters, if necessary;

Makes adjustments to the commander’s actions in the air if the latter makes tactical mistakes;

Exerts a moral influence on pilots fighting by rewarding or condemning their actions.

§ 102. The main means of controlling fighters in battle are radio and the personal example of the commander. To prevent provocative radio operation by the enemy, the pilot must use the established password.

§ 103. Radio transmission during a combat mission is permitted only to the group commander. Slaves turn on their radio transmitters in the following cases:

Call by the group commander;

When an air enemy appears that has not been noticed by the group commander;

If necessary, leave the battle.

§ 104. In order to achieve and maintain the greatest secrecy of flight, it is necessary to resort to the help of radio only in extreme cases.

§ 105. When searching for an enemy, the main means of communication between pilots in a pair (and even between pairs in a flight) should be signals from the evolutions of aircraft. In addition, the wingman in a pair must understand the commander by his behavior and not need unnecessary signals (commands).

§ 106. It is also advisable to obtain information about a detected enemy by the evolutions of the aircraft, since with a widely developed network of eavesdropping on the enemy, fighters using radio can be detected in a timely manner from the ground, about which enemy aircraft will be warned.

§ 107. In air combat, radio is the main and only means of control, especially when a significant number of aircraft are involved in the battle. The commander of the pair, controlling the wingman in battle by radio, also has the opportunity to convey his will to the wingman by personal example and the evolutions of the aircraft.

§ 108. The squadron (group) commander in battle controls the flight commanders, coordinating the actions of the flights within the framework of the assigned task, and, as a rule, does not interfere in the management of the flight. Flight control must always be exercised by the flight commander by transmitting commands and signals to the commander of the trailing pair.

§ 109. In combat, the commander of a group (flight), giving a command, addresses the commander of the flight or wing pair by last name in plain text and thereby informs the rest of the pilots about the decision made.

§ 110. Radio discipline is an indispensable condition for the effectiveness of battle control by radio. Maintaining radio discipline when communicating is an important responsibility of the pilot.

§ 111. The personal example of the commander is also an effective means of controlling the actions of subordinates.

§ 112. The group commander is in battle formation where it is more convenient for him to control the group, and in the group that solves the main task. A commander in battle is, first of all, an organizer, and secondly, a fighter. His main task is not to achieve personal success, but to organize the successful completion of the battle by the entire group as a whole. If a commander in battle turns into an ordinary soldier, then the group, as a rule, will find itself without control, which usually leads to unnecessary losses and loss of the battle.

§ 113. During combat maneuvering, a 90-180° turn maneuver must be performed by issuing the following commands via radio:

team number 1-left (right) march-turn left (right) by 90°;

team number 2-left (right) in a circle, march-turn left (right) 180°;

team number 3-fan march-turn 180° fan;

team number 4-converging fan march-turn 180* converging fan.

§ 114. If the commander’s radio fails, he must transfer control of the group to his deputy with a signal from the evolutions of aircraft No. 5 or control the group using signals given by the evolutions of the aircraft.

The following signals are mandatory for all fighter aircraft:

signal no. 1- “enemy in the direction” - swaying from wing to wing, then turning or turning in the direction of the enemy;

signal No. 2- “let’s attack everything” - quick swinging from wing to wing and personal example of the commander;

signal no. 3- “the leading pair (link) attacks” - a quick swing from wing to wing, then a slide;

signal No. 4- “attack the closing pairs (links)” - two slides;

signal no. 5- “I’m out of formation, the deputy will take command” - rocking from wing to wing, then diving with formation;

signal no. 6- “act on your own” - swinging from wing to wing, then snake in a horizontal plane;

signal No. 7- “collection” - deep, repeated swinging from wing to wing.

§ 115. Signal data may be supplemented by others, but the meaning of the above signals should not be changed. Signals are given until they are repeated by subordinates.

Signals given by the leader of the pair refer to the slave, by the flight commander to the commander of the slave pair, etc.

Signal No. 1 is repeated only after the enemy is detected. When meeting with a mixed enemy group, signal No. 4 means: “Attack enemy covering fighters.”

V. SINGLE AIR COMBAT

§ 116. War experience has shown that a single air battle rarely takes place.

He can be:

During fighter operations involving the flight of a single aircraft (separation from a group, reconnaissance in bad weather, loss of a partner, etc.);

In the air defense system when fighting single bombers (reconnaissance aircraft) night and day;

During a group battle, when the group scatters, interaction is disrupted and the fighter is forced to act independently in isolation from its other aircraft.

A single air battle must be considered only as the basis for the success of a group air battle, since the success of a group air battle depends on the ability to tactically competently conduct a battle by each pilot of the group individually in close cooperation with other fighters.

The basis of group combat is a pair as a firing unit, but the success of the pair’s action depends on the preparedness of each pilot individually, his ability to competently conduct combat in close cooperation with his partner.

§ 117. Single-seat fighter attack from above from behind is one of the main ones, it gives the greatest effect and usually ends with the destruction of the enemy. To carry out this attack it is necessary to take an advantage over the enemy of 800-1,000 meters.

Entering a dive should be done while sighting the enemy at an angle of 45°. If the dive is entered at a speed of 500 km/h, then the duration of the dive will be 8-9 seconds.

When opening fire from a distance of 150 meters and stopping it at a distance of 50 meters, the firing time will be about 1.5 seconds.

Aiming must be done with a lead of 105 thousand, which ensures hitting vulnerable spots (engine, gas tanks, pilot). Exiting the attack must be done upward at an angle of 50-60° to the side with a turn of 30-45°, without losing sight of the enemy (see Fig. No. 10).

Positive aspects of the attack:

The possibility of rapid approach due to the presence of excess, which contributes to the achievement of surprise;

The ability to move upward after an attack to occupy an advantageous starting position;

Convenience and ease of implementation;

Lack of fire resistance from the enemy.

Disadvantages of the attack:

The transience of being in a firing position;

As the dive angle increases, the angular lead increases.

§ 118. Attack of a single-seat fighter from behind from below after a dive with access to the firing position at an angle of 15-20°.

To carry out the attack, you must take a starting position 800 meters higher. The dive should be entered at the moment of sighting the enemy at an angle of 30°.

Exit from a dive should begin at the enemy's altitude. If the dive is entered at a speed of 400-450 km/h, then at the moment of exit from the dive it will be equal to 550-600 km/h. If the withdrawal from a dive begins at a distance of 600 meters, then the distance to the enemy after the withdrawal from a dive will be equal to 300 meters and the reduction will be 150-200 meters. If the pilot performs rough aiming and precise aiming in two seconds, then he has time equal to 3 seconds to fire (when opening fire from a distance of 150 meters and ceasing fire at a distance of 50 meters). Aiming must be done with a lead of 105 thousand.

During this time, the fighter can fire two long bursts at the enemy. To exit the attack, go upward at an angle of up to 60° in the opposite direction of the attack with a turn towards the enemy, without losing sight of him (see Fig. No. 11).

Positive aspects of the attack the same as when attacking from behind from above, but the convenience of firing and the duration of stay in the firing position increases significantly.

The disadvantage of the attack is that it is difficult to execute. To correctly carry out an attack, it is necessary to take into account: elevation, distance to the enemy and speed ratio.

The main mistakes can be:

Diving too far from the enemy, which leads to a loss of speed when catching up and the impossibility of escaping upward;

Diving too close to the enemy - transience or even impossibility of firing;

Exiting an attack late and at a low angle means exposing your aircraft to enemy attack.

§ 119. Frontal attack on a single-seat fighter, from the point of view of defeating the enemy, is ineffective. It can take place: during open approach for the purpose of battle, during the battle. A frontal attack tests the moral qualities of a fighter pilot. The winner is the one who calmly and persistently brings it to the end.

Disadvantages of the attack:

Presence of enemy fire resistance;

Small affected area;

Speed ​​of attack, opening fire from extended distances and stopping it at advantageous distances (200 m);

Inability to quickly repeat an attack.

Possible maneuver of the enemy after a frontal attack: escape uphill, escape downward in a dive, transition to a horizontal maneuver (see Fig. No. 12).

When the enemy goes uphill, it is necessary to make an energetic 180° turn with a maximum gain in height, without losing sight of the enemy.

So when performing a frontal attack at a speed of 500 km/h. the distance to the enemy after the turn will be about 900-1000 m, while our fighter will be 300 meters lower (position No. 1).

When the enemy leaves in a slide, a slide can also be performed with subsequent separation from the enemy and the resumption of the attack on a collision course.

When the enemy goes down in a dive, pursuing him is advisable, especially when there is an advantage in speed. If there is no superiority in speed, it is more profitable to perform a maneuver with a climb without losing sight of the enemy (position No. 2).

§ 120. Attack of a single bomber of the Xe-111, Yu-88 type from the front from above from the side.

The peculiarity of bombers of this type is the presence of all-round fire protection and the almost complete absence of dead sectors of fire, especially from the rear hemisphere. In the front hemisphere from above there is a fairly significant dead sector of fire, which can be used when attacking from the front from above from the side at an angle of 45° with an angle of 2/4. Fire must be opened from a distance of 400 m and stopped at a distance of 150-200 m. The lead must be 210 thousand.

It is better to exit the attack by jumping over the bomber in the opposite direction of the attack to take off, followed by climbing and turning towards the enemy’s flight (see Fig. 13).

Positive aspects of the attack:

The attack is carried out outside the enemy's fire resistance;

Large target area;

Firing at unprotected vulnerable areas (engines, crew, gas tanks).

Disadvantages of the attack:

Difficulty in aiming and firing, increasing with increasing dive angle and angle;

Speed ​​of attack.

§ 121. Attack of a single bomber of the Xe-111 and Yu-88 type from the front from the side at the same height.

When performing it against the Xe-111 from an angle of 1/4 - 2/4 and against the Yu-88 from an angle of 2/4, there is no enemy fire resistance.

Fire must be opened from a distance of 400 m and stopped at a distance of 150-200 m; the correction at the moment of opening fire must be taken at an angle of 2/4-140 thousand.

Exiting the attack must be done by slipping under the bomber, reaching the opposite side of the attack, breaking away from the range of the shooters' fire, and then turning towards the enemy's flight (see Fig. No. 14).

Positive aspects of the attack:

Increased target area;

Lack of fire resistance;

Exit from the attack provides minimal fire resistance from the rear shooters, which is ensured by a quick separation from the enemy.

Disadvantages of the attack:

Shading (partial) of the cabin by the motor;

The affected area is smaller than when attacking from the front from above from the side;

The speed of the attack and the presence of amendments that make it difficult to fire.

§ 122. Attack of a single Xe-111 and Yu-88 bomber directly from the front from below is ineffective and can only be used in the absence of a choice of direction of attack (see Fig. No. 15).

In this case, it is necessary to take a lead of 140 thousand.

Disadvantages of the attack:

The attack is carried out in the firing sector of the front lower gunner;

Difficult conditions for exiting an attack, the fighter becomes a convenient target for the shooter;

Loss of speed towards the end of the attack and the inability to quickly repeat it;

The speed of the attack and the difficulty of firing.

§ 123. Attack of a single Xe-111 and Yu-88 bomber from behind at the same altitude can occur when catching up with an enemy or when the enemy, as a result of a flight or battle, finds himself ahead of the fighter.

During the process of approaching, if the attacker is detected, it is necessary to maneuver before entering the firing position in order to prevent the shooter from conducting aimed fire.

At the moment of approaching and maneuvering, it is necessary to suppress the shooter’s fire resistance with short targeted bursts and, as they approach, transfer fire in medium and long bursts to vulnerable spots up to a distance of 100-50 m.

Having entered the firing position, the fighter must stop all maneuvers and conduct aimed fire until the enemy is completely destroyed. The exit from the attack can be in two directions:

If the fighter has a sufficient reserve of speed obtained through a preliminary dive, then exiting the attack must be done by jumping on top of the bomber; separation from the enemy must be done by turning to the side, with a climb, followed by a maneuver to occupy a new starting position (see Fig. No. 16).

If there is no speed reserve or it is small, then exiting the attack must be done by slipping under the bomber, turning to the side to separate from the enemy, followed by climbing (see Fig. No. 17).

Positive aspects of the attack:

There is almost no angular movement of the target in the sight, which makes aiming and firing easier;

Prolonged stay in a firing position;

Disadvantages of the attack:

Small target projection;

The fighter has no angular movement in the shooter's sight and remains in the firing sector for a long time, which makes it easier for the shooter to conduct aimed fire.

§ 124. Attack of a Yu-87 type aircraft from behind from below from the side at a 2/4 angle can be used both on a single aircraft and on a group. It is very important for a fighter to have a sufficient reserve of speed in order to be able to quickly close with the enemy and not find himself without speed at the moment of exiting the attack. The speed of the attack eliminates the possibility of the enemy maneuvering and providing the shooter with the opportunity to fire. Fire must be opened from short distances, aimed at vulnerable areas of the aircraft up to a distance of 50 m. The correction at the moment of opening fire is 60 thousand.

Exiting the attack must be done by jumping to the opposite side of the attack, turning towards the enemy and descending to gain speed, followed by climbing to altitude for a second attack (see Fig. No. 18).

Positive aspects of the attack:

Lack of fire resistance; the possibility of achieving surprise in an attack, since this direction is poorly visible to the enemy;

Large target projection;

Easy to do.

The disadvantage of the attack is the possibility of losing speed by the time the attack is released, a large loss of altitude to gain speed, which increases the time between attacks.

§ 125. FV-189 attack from behind from the side at the same height.

The peculiarity of the FV-189 aircraft is its good maneuverability, which makes it difficult to fight it. It is better to attack him from behind from the side at the same height at an angle of 45°. Open fire from a distance of 150 m. At a distance of 50-25 m, you must aim at the hub of the near motor (see Fig. No. 19).

Exiting the attack must be done at the enemy’s height by turning in the direction of the attack, followed by breaking away from the enemy and taking the starting position for a second attack, if the enemy is not shot down.

The advantage of such an attack is that the attacker, having good conditions for firing, is protected by the near beam from the fire of the rear gunner at the time of the attack and when leaving it.

§ 126. Assessing attacks from the front hemisphere, one can note their general disadvantages:

Short duration of stay at the firing position; attacks are fleeting and require high fire skills;

Inability to quickly repeat an attack due to separation from the enemy; often a repeated attack is preceded by an attack from the enemy.

The most effective attack from the front hemisphere is an attack from the front from above from the side at a 1/4-2/4 angle.

§ 127. Attacks from the rear hemisphere are more advantageous and usually end in the destruction of the enemy.

Modern bombers have almost no dead cones of fire from the rear hemisphere, due to which attacks from this direction, as a rule, take place in the firing sector. Therefore, the decisive factor in attacks from the rear hemisphere is the surprise of the attack. If surprise is achieved, fire must be opened from close ranges and maintained until the enemy is completely destroyed. If surprise is excluded and the enemy provides fire resistance, then it is necessary to destroy the shooter from increased distances with short targeted bursts and, as they approach, transfer fire to the vulnerable spots of the aircraft to kill.

If the enemy must be attacked immediately, then the shooter's fire should not serve as an obstacle, since the fighter has more powerful weapons and fire superiority is always on his side.

The best attacks from the rear hemisphere against aircraft such as Xe-111, Yu-88 will be: an attack from behind at the same altitude at small angles, and when attacking as a pair, an attack simultaneously from different directions from above from behind in the sector of the upper rear gunner.

For aircraft such as Yu-87 and ME-110, the best attack from the rear hemisphere is an attack from below from the side.

For single-seat fighters such as ME-109, FV-190 - attack from behind from above at a slight angle and attack from behind from below after a dive.

§ 128. When analyzing advantageous and disadvantageous directions of attack, it should be taken into account that the fighter does not always have the opportunity to choose the direction of attack. Therefore, when conducting offensive operations, a fighter must be able to attack and destroy the enemy from any direction and position in which the enemy is detected or finds himself during the battle. The ability to hit the enemy from increased distances certainly becomes especially important.

§ 129. Above, only the first attack, the beginning of an air battle, was considered. If the enemy is not destroyed during the first attack, then it is the beginning of a whole series of maneuvers until one of the opponents manages to take an advantageous firing position that provides accurate fire that destroys the enemy. It is impossible to foresee what situations may arise and how to act in these situations. One can only imagine the variety of positions in the dynamics of combat, where the pilot’s actions depend on the actions and behavior of the enemy, his personal qualities and intelligence.

The winner in battle is the one who surpasses his opponent in skill in aerobatics and fire, speed and decisiveness of action, composure and confidence in his superiority.

§; 130. The general rules that must be followed in battle are as follows:

It is necessary to carry out such evolutions in battle that are not only unexpected for the enemy, but also make it possible to forestall the enemy in occupying an advantageous starting position for an attack and exclude the opportunity for the enemy to use his fire;

It is necessary to make such evolutions that are easy for your own aircraft and difficult for the enemy aircraft, which is ensured by knowledge of the flight-tactical capabilities of the enemy aircraft and comparing them with your own capabilities:

The attack should be carried out taking into account the safety of exiting it and the possibility of its rapid repetition;

In battle, make extensive use of the sun: it is better to make attacks from the direction of the sun and exit them into the sun. This makes it possible to achieve surprise in the first attack, and during the battle make it difficult for the enemy to fire and be out of sight of the enemy. When finishing a maneuver, you must strive to have the sun behind you and the enemy in front of you;

Do not lose sight of the enemy during the entire battle; the invisible enemy threatens defeat, since he can take a position that gives him the opportunity to inflict defeat by fire;

Conduct only an offensive battle, keep the initiative in your hands. In battle there is a struggle to seize the initiative. It’s easy to give it away, but to take it back is much more difficult, and sometimes impossible;

Fight in a vertical plane at high speeds, making full use of the high qualities of your aircraft. This makes it possible to drag the enemy to unfavorable heights, put him in unfavorable conditions, impose his will on him and force him to lose the battle;

When fighting at high speed, at high speeds, the fighter pilot must know and remember that in some cases it is beneficial to have a low speed to destroy the enemy; the reduction of speed and its equalization with the speed of the enemy can occur in the case when surprise of the attack is achieved, and there is no threat of attack from the enemy at the moment (especially when attacking a bomber). This greatly increases the effectiveness of fire and makes it possible to destroy the enemy on the first attack;

Do not stop the fight first if the situation allows. If the enemy does not accept the battle or tries to leave it, take decisive action to prevent him from leaving unharmed;

Do not make unnecessary sudden evolutions: this is associated with a loss of speed and the creation of unnecessary overloads;

If a fighter finds itself in the position of being attacked, it is necessary to immediately get out of the attack with a maneuver that provides the possibility of going on the offensive. It is best to escape from a blow by making a sharp turn and sliding towards the enemy and under him or up;

Correct and quick assessment of the air situation, speed of decision-making and action, elimination of mistakes in battle and the use of enemy mistakes, the desire to destroy the enemy, as a rule, bring victory in battle.

§ 131. Maneuver in air combat refers to all changes in the direction of flight in combat, in the vertical and horizontal planes, with the help of which the following is carried out:

The surprise of the first attack;

Exit to the firing position;

Exit from attack;

Exit from under attack;

Exit from the battle.

§ 132. Vertical maneuver in combat is all changes in direction in the vertical plane (steep dive, slide, candles, etc.).

The widespread use in combat of maneuver in the vertical plane and the presence of superiority in height makes it possible to seize the initiative of an attack and provide our fighters with the necessary reserve of speed, which makes it possible to successfully conduct a battle and freely exit it even with the enemy’s numerical superiority.

Vertical maneuver, combined with powerful fighter fire, provides enormous opportunities for offensive action and successful completion of the battle.

§ 133. Horizontal maneuver in combat refers to all changes in direction in the horizontal plane (turns, turns, etc.).

The horizontal maneuver is a defensive maneuver; it does not make it possible to fully utilize the qualities and capabilities of a modern high-speed fighter.

§ 134. Counter-maneuver in battle is a maneuver by the defender with the aim of disrupting the attacker’s firing position in order to prevent him from conducting aimed fire.

If the counter-maneuver of the attacked is the beginning of a transition to the offensive, then such a counter-maneuver turns into a counterattack.

In air combat there is a continuous transition of maneuvers into counter-maneuvers, attacks into counterattacks.

§ 135. Enemy fighters, if their actions are not limited by the situation, build their tactics based on the following principles:

Engage in battle only if there is superiority in height:

They attack when conditions for a surprise attack and convenient conditions for exiting the attack are provided. To this end, enemy fighters patiently and skillfully use the sun, clouds and closing speed:

Engage with equal or superior forces only from clearly advantageous positions and in cases where there are additional forces nearby;

They prefer short-term combat, limiting themselves to one or two, less often three, attacks, after which they usually leave the battle and resume it, having achieved tactical advantages.

§ 136. The peculiarities of the tactics of fighters of the ME-109 type come from the properties of the aircraft: fighters of this type attack from the upper rear hemisphere with a steep climb upward, usually ending the hill with a turn of 90-180° or a turn. They prefer to fight at altitudes of 5000-8000 m, where they have the greatest flight and tactical qualities. Exit from the attack is done by sliding, turning, diving, sliding, sometimes turning over or using another figure. Frontal attacks are not preferred and, as a rule, cannot be sustained. The battle is usually fought in a vertical plane.

§ 137. The peculiarities of the tactics of fighters of the FV-190 type consist in actions on the principle of short, sudden attacks against individual separated aircraft. They attack more readily when they have superiority in altitude, gaining the missing speed in a dive.

Having better horizontal maneuverability compared to vertical, they often switch to horizontal combat. Frontal attacks are made more often and accepted more readily, using powerful weapons. To get out of the attack, they often resort to diving and turning over the wing. The coup is an opportune moment to defeat him. The enemy often uses combined groups, having FV-190 type aircraft in the lower tiers, and ME-109 type aircraft in the upper tiers.

§ 138. The FV-190 fighter is one of the main types and has a number of modifications. Its latest modification is the FV-190A-8, which is used as a fighter (4-point, armed with 2 synchronized 13-mm machine guns and 2 synchronized 20-mm cannons) and as an attack aircraft (6-point, having in addition to the above weapons 2 wing-mounted 30 mm guns).

Despite the fact that the FV-190-A-8 (equipped with a BMW-801 engine allowing continuous boost for 10 minutes) has significantly increased flight characteristics, our production fighters successfully fight with it, having a significant qualitative superiority.

§ 139. The Yak-3 fighter has a significant advantage over the FV-190A-8 in maneuverability and rate of climb and is only slightly inferior in maximum speed at the ground when the engine is accelerated on the FV-190A-8 aircraft, which gives it the opportunity to evade pursuit.

In combat on turns (both on the right and on the left), the Yak-3 comes into the tail of the FV-190A-8 at a distance of actual fire after 1.5-2 turns.

In the vertical plane, the Yak-3 easily maintains superior altitude over the FV-190A-8, which makes it possible to seize the initiative in the battle and preempt it in an attack from advantageous positions.

During a dive, the Yak-3 picks up speed faster than the FV-190A-8, which allows it to be attacked both during a dive and when exiting it. It must be borne in mind that the Yak-3 picks up speed faster and is superior to the FV-190A-8 at the beginning of a dive at lower speeds. At high speeds, the increase in speed occurs more slowly, so it is easier to catch up with the FV-190A-8 at the beginning of a dive, when it has not yet gained high speed.

§ 140. The LA-7 fighter also has a significant superiority over the FV-190A-8 in both maximum speed (especially when boosting the engine) and rate of climb. and in maneuverability in vertical and horizontal planes.

On left and right turns, the LA-7 comes into the tail of the FV-190A-8 at actual fire distance after 2-2.5 turns.

In vertical combat, the LA-7 must use its superior speed and climb rate to seize the initiative in the battle. If at the beginning of the battle the FV-190A-8’s speed turns out to be greater than that of the LA-7, then it will be much more difficult to take an advantageous position for an attack, since the FV-190A-8 quickly switches to a descent from the top point of climb, which gives it the opportunity to forestall the aircraft -7 in attack or avoid attack.

The LA-7 dives better and picks up speed faster, which allows it to attack the FV-190A-8 both during a dive and when exiting it.

Having superiority in maximum horizontal speed, the LA-7 (by boosting the engine) easily catches up with the FV-190A-8 in a straight line.

VI. COUPLES FIGHT

§ 141. The pair is a firing unit and forms the basis for constructing combat formations in fighter aircraft and organizing interaction in group air combat.

The striking power of the pair is sufficient to destroy single enemy aircraft. In a favorable tactical situation, the pair can successfully fight small groups and suddenly attack large groups of enemy aircraft.

§ 142. Para-indivisible. Returning partners from a combat flight one by one is a crime. The separation of the follower from the leader and the desire to act independently puts the leader and the follower in a dangerous position and, as a rule, leads to death. When performing a maneuver, the leader must take into account the capabilities of the follower; the wingman must always have a reserve of speed, which ensures the ability to maintain his place in the battle formation.

§ 143. The success of a pair’s fight depends on the teamwork of the pair, the presence of continuous effective fire interaction, mutual understanding and trust.

§ 144. High military and flight discipline, a sense of responsibility for a comrade in battle, mutual assistance up to self-sacrifice are factors that ensure the success of actions as part of a pair.

§ 145. Teamwork in a pair must be practiced so much that the pilots, without giving each other signals or commands, could understand the evolution of their partner’s aircraft and construct the correct maneuver.

§ 146. The harmony of the pair is ensured by the constancy and voluntariness of its selection. An unattached pair is not capable of successfully performing combat missions.

§ 147. High tactical literacy, knowledge of the tactics of one’s fighters and enemy aircraft is a necessary condition for victory. Each new variant (technique) of air combat must be carefully studied on the ground, practiced in the air and imposed on the enemy unexpectedly.

§ 148. The pair performs all flights on combat missions in combat formations.

The order of battle is the arrangement of aircraft in groups and the relative placement of groups in the air, determined by the instructions of the commander.

§ 149. The pair’s order of battle must meet the following requirements:

Be flexible in control and easy to save in battle;

To divert a minimum of pilots' attention from monitoring the air and searching for the enemy;

Allow free maneuver in the horizontal and vertical plane;

Ensure fire interaction between aircraft.

§ 150. The pair carries out combat missions in the “Front” and “Bearing” combat formations (see Fig. No. 20).

Battle formation “Front” (right, left):

Interval 150-200 m;

Distance 10-50 m.

Airplanes fly at the same altitude or with a slight elevation above the wingman (5–50 m).

§ 151. The “front” combat formation provides the most complete overview of the airspace in pairs and is used when following to carry out combat missions and when attacking large groups of enemy aircraft, when the threat of attack from enemy fighters is excluded.

§ 152. Combat formation “bearing” (right and left):

interval 25-100 m;

distance 150-200 m.

The "Peleng" combat formation is used before an attack (battle) upon a signal from the commander of the pair. The side of the bearing is determined based on the size of the target, its location, the probable maneuver of the enemy, the direction of attack and exit from it. During the attack, the wingman, based on the current situation, can independently change the direction of the bearing.

§ 153. The combat formations of a pair make it possible, without disturbing them, to change the direction of flight by 90 and 180° in a minimum time equal to the turn of a single aircraft. When the leader of the pair changes direction, the follower, following the shortest path, cuts corners and moves to the other side.

§ 154. A turn in 90s is performed using the command “left (right) march.” When turning towards the follower, the leader makes a turn with some height gain; the follower passes under the leader. When the follower is at the level of the leader, he makes a roll towards the turn and, with a climb, takes his place on the other side.

When turning towards the leader, the follower cuts the corner and, due to the greater roll, takes his place.

§ 155. A 180° turn is made on the command “left (right) in a circle march - according to the “all of a sudden” principle; Each of the pilots independently turns in the same direction, according to the command. As a result of the turn, the follower will be on the other side of the leader (see Fig. No. 21).

§ 156. The pair attacks simultaneously or sequentially, covering each other. The actions of the follower should always be dictated by the behavior of the leader. An independent attack by a follower is possible only in cases where delay threatens the danger of an attack from the enemy.

§ 157. A simultaneous bunk attack of a single bomber of the Xe-111 and Yu-88 type from behind from above at an angle of 1/4-2/4 from different directions in the rear top gunner’s sector is the most effective and, as a rule, ends in the destruction of the enemy. It is better to carry out an attack with an elevation of 600-800 m; Start the transition to a dive when sighting the enemy at an angle of 45° with an initial angle of up to 60°.

At the moment the leader goes into attack, the follower, increasing the distance to 100 m, simultaneously goes into attack from the other side. It is more advantageous to exit an attack by jumping one under the bomber and the other above the bomber in the opposite direction of the attack, to separate from the enemy beyond the limits of his actual fire, followed by a maneuver with a climb to take up the starting position for a second attack. (See Fig. No. 22).

The attack is used when there is no threat from enemy fighters.

Positive aspects of the attack:

Ability to fire at extremely close ranges;

Large affected area;

The shooter's fire is dispersed, one of the attackers is beyond fire resistance;

Ability to quickly repeat an attack.

The disadvantages of the attack are:

Difficulty getting out of an attack;

Presence of fire countermeasures.

§ 158. Sequential attack of a single bomber by one under cover the other is used when there is a threat from enemy fighters or when there is uncertainty about their absence. When the leader goes on the attack, the follower, remaining at the same altitude of 400-600 m, intensively monitors the air, follows the leader, being in a position that provides the possibility of repelling an attack on the leader and the possibility of going on the attack if the enemy is not destroyed.

The leader, having left the attack, takes the position of the follower and covers his attack. (See Fig. No. 23).

Exit from the attack must be done by jumping up to the opposite side of the attack, breaking away from the enemy and then turning towards the enemy. The order of the attack is the same as when a single fighter attacks a single bomber.

§ 159. Simultaneous attack by a pair of enemy fighters from behind from above at an angle of 0/4-1/4 it can be if there is superiority over the enemy and there is no immediate threat from enemy fighters.

If a pair of enemy fighters are in the left bearing at the time of the attack, then it is more convenient to attack with the right bearing. (See Fig. No. 24).

The order of the attack is the same as when attacking with a single fighter. The quality of the attack, its advantages and disadvantages are the same as when attacking with a single fighter.

§ 160. Sequential attack by one of a pair of enemy fighters under the cover of another used in cases where there is a need for cover associated with the threat of an attack, or when the enemy, as a result of an attack, may find himself in a more advantageous position to strike back. (See Fig. No. 25).

The order of the attack is the same as when attacking a single fighter from behind from above.

§ 161. Simultaneous attack by a pair of enemy fighters from behind from below after a dive used in the same cases as an attack from behind from above. (See Fig. No. 26).

The starting position, the order of execution, its positive aspects and disadvantages are the same as when attacking a single fighter.

§ 162. Attack by a pair from one direction of a flight (small group) of bombers from behind from above from the side from a 2/4 angle, firing at one or two enemy aircraft is carried out at an altitude of 800-1000 m; entering a dive with an initial angle of up to 60° at the moment of sighting the enemy at an angle of 30°.

The commander of the pair, turning towards the enemy, launches an attack on the leading (wingman), the wingman, increasing the distance to 100 m, launches an attack on the closest wingman or leading enemy aircraft (See Fig. No. 27).

Exiting the attack must be done by jumping over the enemy in the direction opposite to the attack, breaking away, followed by an upward maneuver to take the starting position for a second attack.

§ 163. The commander of a pair, who has decided to attack a numerically superior enemy group, must achieve tactical advantages over the enemy: surprise and superiority; the attack must be carried out quickly, taking into account the possibility of its rapid repetition or separation from the enemy.

VII. FIGHT TEAM

§ 164. A link consisting of two pairs is the smallest tactical unit, most convenient for independent actions against small groups of the enemy.

§ 165. The actions of pairs must be based on clear fire interaction. The trailing pair must build its maneuver in accordance with the maneuver of the leading pair. An independent attack by a trailing pair can only occur in cases where delay jeopardizes the success of the team’s actions.

§ 166. Pairs in a flight operate according to the same principles as single aircraft in a pair: covering the attack of one of the pairs, building up the strike.

§ 167. If a successful attack of one pair is sufficient to destroy the enemy, then the other pair does not enter the battle, but covers the actions of the attacking pair from the enemy’s attacks.

If there is no threat of attack from the enemy, the covering pair also makes attacks, matching their actions with the actions of the other pair.

§ 168. The combat formations of the unit must ensure visual communication and the possibility of interaction between pairs. The commander builds the battle formation based on weather conditions, air conditions and assigned tasks.

§ 169. When flying on a combat mission, the flight follows in the “Front” combat formation, the interval between pairs is 200-400 m; distance 50-100 m. (See Fig. No. 28).

The separation of pairs in height can reach 300-500 m. If there is sun, it is advantageous to place the covering pair on the side opposite to the sun.

§ 170. In the presence of continuous clouds, the flight walks at the same altitude with the lower edge of the clouds, periodically descending to view the airspace under the clouds.

§ 171. Before the battle, the unit takes the combat formation “Bearing” on the command “attack, cover” or “attack, cover.”

The distance between pairs is 200-400 m.

Interval 50-100 m (see Fig. No. 29).

Such a battle formation makes it possible to protect the attacking pair from possible attacks from the enemy.

§ 172. The combat formations of the unit provide the opportunity to freely maneuver in the vertical and horizontal plane. The link can change direction by 90 and 180° in a minimum time equal to the turn of a single aircraft.

§ 173. A 90° turn is performed using the command “left (right) march.” If a turn must be made in the minimum time, then as a result of the turn the link is rebuilt into the reverse sharp bearing of the pairs (see Fig. No. 30).

In this case, the pairs perform a turn at their own heights, and the followers in pairs lower themselves, cutting off the corners of the turn if the turn is made towards the leader.

§ 174. If there is no need to perform a 90° turn in the minimum time, the flight commander makes a turn with a slightly reduced roll so that the wingman and the trailing pair with a large roll and a smaller radius take the battle formation after the turn, as shown in Fig. No. 31.

A turn towards a follower or a follower pair differs in that the leaders perform the turn with some excess, and the followers pass iodine to the leaders.

§ 175. A 180° turn according to the “all of a sudden” principle is performed on the command “left (right) march in a circle.”

In this case, each aircraft turns independently, as shown in Fig. No. 32.

§ 176. If it is necessary to quickly change direction by 180° in order to strike the enemy from two directions simultaneously, a turn is performed in a fan of pairs at the command “fan march” (see Fig. N° 33).

§ 177. If it is necessary to quickly change direction by 180° to repel an enemy attack from the rear hemisphere along

One of the pairs (or even both) must be turned by a converging fan of pairs, as shown in Fig. No. 34.

§ 178. When searching for the enemy and covering ground targets (troops), the flight moves at different speeds, changing altitude. The flight climbs towards poorly visible airspace (sun, haze, etc.) at a lower speed, and descends from poorly visible airspace at an increased speed.

§ 179. A link can carry out the following attacks:

Enveloping the enemy and striking from both sides;

Attack by a unit simultaneously from one direction;

Sequentially in pairs from one or two directions.

§ 180. The method and direction of attack is chosen by the flight commander, based on the current air situation. The attack must be carried out boldly and decisively. The first attack must be aimed at removing the largest number of enemy aircraft and demoralizing them.

In all cases of encounter with an air enemy, the flight commander is obliged to report to the command post, indicating the area, altitude, type and strength of the enemy.

§ 181. When attacking a small group of bombers and there is a threat from enemy fighters, the leading pair strikes at the bombers, and the trailing pair ensures its actions by cutting off enemy fighters, without breaking away from the strike group, and, if possible, attacks the enemy sequentially, as shown in Fig. No. 35.

§ 182. A simultaneous attack by a flight on large groups of bombers can take place when operating as part of a squadron or in the absence of a threat from enemy fighters, striking one or two flights of bombers from the front from above from the side, as shown in Fig. No. 36.

§ 183. The attack must be repeated after a minimum period of time from the rear hemisphere from above to the side, as shown in Fig. No. 37.

§ 184. When attacking from the front from above from the side and from behind from above from the side, the exit from the attack must be done by jumping above the bombers to a breakaway, followed by climbing to altitude for a second attack.

§ 185. When attacking enemy fighters, you must first strive to destroy the trailing pair, the aircraft located above or on the flanks.

§ 186. If one of the pairs is attacked, it must make such a maneuver that would help the second pair to repel the attack in the minimum time.

§ 187. If a flight was attacked simultaneously, then the maneuver of the pairs should be based on the possibility of mutually repelling the enemy, and the maneuver of each aircraft should prevent the possibility of being isolated from the group.

§ 188. When meeting enemy fighters head-on, the attack must be carried out persistently and boldly, without being the first to turn away.

§ 189. For the successful completion of a combat mission and for pilots to have an excellent understanding of their duties in combat, the flight commander must, before each combat flight, replay the entire flight: from organizing takeoff to landing in all its details and variants of the air situation. The flight commander personally prepares each pilot for combat missions and bears full responsibility for the training.

§ 190. Tactical and fire interaction between pairs in a link, mutual cover and revenue, coherence and precision in actions are the basis for success in battle even with numerically superior enemy forces.

VIII. SQUADRILLE BATTLE

§ 191. A squadron is a tactical unit of fighters and is the most convenient unit for independent action.

§ 192. Combat within a squadron is based on the fire interaction of units (groups), the actions of which are coordinated by the squadron commander. The actions of pairs and flights within a squadron are based on the principles set out in the sections “Pair Combat” and “Team Combat”.

§ 193. Before a combat flight, the squadron commander, based on a thorough study of the air situation and the assigned mission, must build battle formations and distribute forces so as to enter into battle in conditions favorable to himself.

§ 194. During the flight and combat, as the air situation changes, the squadron commander makes changes to the combat formations so that the latter ensure the successful completion of the assigned mission.

§ 195. Air combat of a squadron must be conducted in combat formations echeloned in height. The squadron's order of battle should be composed of three groups:

Strike group;

Cover groups;

Free maneuver groups (reserve)

§ 196. The purpose of the strike group is to strike the enemy’s main forces.

Purpose of the cover group:

Providing a strike group against attack by enemy fighters;

Support of strike group actions;

Destruction of enemy troupes and individual aircraft leaving the battle;

Covering the assembly and exit of the strike group from the battle.

§ 197. From the covering group it is necessary to select a free maneuver (reserve) pair, consisting of the most trained pilots.

§ 198. A free maneuver (reserve) pair, being above the cover group and in more favorable conditions, performs reserve and security tasks; monitoring the progress of the battle, it destroys individual separated enemy aircraft, fetters the enemy’s maneuver in the vertical plane and, with decisive attacks from above, assists the covering group, warns its main forces about the approach of fresh enemy forces, and pins them down in battle.

§ 199. When meeting with enemy bombers, covered by a small force of fighters, the strike group can be strengthened by a covering group, and in the absence of enemy fighters, the covering group can be completely retargeted to strike the bombers.

§ 200. If, due to the current situation, the strike group is not able to strike the enemy, then the covering group, striking the enemy, takes on the role of the strike group. The strike group gains altitude and serves as a cover group.

§ 201. The success of a battle as part of a squadron depends on:

Perfectly organized and continuous management;

Clear interaction between units (groups);

The squadron's consistency and the quality of pilot training.

AIR COMBAT DURING CLEANING BOMBER OPERATION AREA FROM ENEMY FIGHTERS

§ 202. An air battle between a squadron of fighters and a group of enemy fighters when clearing the area of ​​bomber operations should be organized on the following principles (option):

Situation:

The task of our fighters is to clear the area of ​​operations of their bombers from enemy fighters;

The balance of power is equal;

The beginning of an air battle with a slight excess of our squadron;

The order of battle of our squadron is the right bearing of the groups;

The enemy's order of battle is the left bearing of the groups.

§ 203. The order of battle of the parties before the attack (see Fig. No. 38).

The order of battle of our squadron consists of:

Strike group:

Cover groups;

Pairs of free maneuver (reserve).

The strike group consists of 6 aircraft.

The cover group consists of a link that follows 400 meters from behind at an interval of 400 meters in the direction opposite to the sun, exceeding 800 meters. This arrangement of the cover group provides freedom of maneuver and convenient observation of the strike group. Viewing angle 45°.

The free maneuver (reserve) pair goes 500 meters behind and exceeds 1000 meters. The order of battle of the links in the squadron's order of battle is constructed for the convenience of searching for the enemy. When enemy aircraft are detected, the units take up battle formation for attack.

The squadron commander is in the cover group.

The battle formation of the enemy group is constructed similarly to the battle formation of our squadron, with the only difference being that the aircraft in pairs are located in an extended bearing with an elevation of up to 200 meters, and the elevation between pairs is up to 400 meters.

§ 204. Having discovered enemy fighters, our strike group from above on oncoming courses launches an attack simultaneously on the entire enemy strike group, after which, having an advantage in speed, it leaves with a right combat turn (towards the enemy’s bearing) upward to occupy a new starting position for the subsequent attacks (see Fig. No. 39).

The enemy strike group, having received an attack from below on a collision course, having a lower speed, will descend with a breakaway followed by a climb. The separation and combat turn of our strike group, the separation and turn of the enemy group will take 1 minute, during which time the gap between the groups will be 5-8 km.

§ 205. From the moment our strike group goes on the attack, our covering group, with a climb to altitude, takes the starting position for the attack and attacks the enemy’s covering group from above on a collision course, followed by leaving with a right combat turn upward to take the starting position for the attack (see Fig. No. 40).

By this time, our strike group will be on a combat turn and the task of the covering group is to monitor the strike group, and at the necessary moment to repel the enemy attack.

After the attack, the gap between our covering group and the enemy’s covering group will be 6-8 km, and at the moment of a combat turn, our covering group will be in a position favorable to attack by the enemy’s free maneuver pair, which can attack the covering group from behind from above, since the distance from the start of the attack of our covering group until the enemy’s free maneuver will be 1.5 km, which will take up to 20 seconds.

§ 206. The task of our free maneuver pair (reserve) is to build their maneuver so as to end up in the area where our strike and covering groups exit the attack. In the event of a possible transition of the enemy's free maneuver pair into an attack on our covering group, our free maneuver (reserve) pair repels the attack and then moves upward (see Fig. No. 41).

The variant indicates the principal actions of groups during the first attack. Further actions of the groups will depend on the current air situation and the decisions made by the squadron commander on further actions.

AIR COMBAT DURING PATROL

§ 207. Air combat when patrolling a squadron of fighters with a mixed group of the enemy in clear weather should be organized on the following principles (option): when patrolling a squadron, the altitude of the lower group should be at least 2000 m. This altitude ensures safety from fire from MZA and anti-aircraft machine guns.

Patrolling must be carried out from the sunny side of the object, since on sunny days the enemy carries out bombing raids from the direction of the sun in order to make it difficult! counteraction to air defense systems. In addition, you can see much further from the sun than against the sun. If the enemy does not appear from the direction of the sun, then the patrolling fighters will see him on the approach, and they themselves will be poorly visible to the enemy.

§ 208. A fight with a group of bombers takes longer than with a single aircraft, so the group must be met not over a guarded object, but in advance so that, by the time the group reaches the target, it would suffer such a defeat that would force it to abandon its assigned mission. task or, in extreme cases, would be weakened as much as possible.

The first attack is necessary to break the enemy group's battle formation into single aircraft or small groups and thereby deprive it of fire interaction.

It is necessary to strive to make the first attack suddenly; approach is carried out using clouds and sun. Attacks are carried out in the range of several bombers, which reduces fire resistance and increases the area of ​​destruction of enemy aircraft.

When attacking a group of bombers, the effectiveness of fire from large angles increases significantly.

Attacks on large groups must be carried out from different or from the same direction by units in a battle formation close to the front.

An attack on a group of bombers, rearranged in a circle, must be carried out from the outside in front, since in this direction the fire of the bombers is weak, and the fighters quickly pass through the sectors of fire.

§ 209. The squadron’s order of battle should be as follows: a strike group of 6 aircraft patrols at an altitude of 2000 m. Above the strike group, at 1000 m, a cover group of 4 aircraft patrols, and follows the course of the strike group, but in such a way as to be on the opposite side of the zone for better viewing of the rear hemisphere of the strike group. Above the cover group with an elevation of 1500 m with a reverse course, there is a pair of free maneuver (reserve), selected from the best pilots (see Fig. No. 42).

The squadron commander is at the head of the cover group. Deputy squadron commander in the strike group.

Before meeting the enemy, the squadron's order of battle is the same as when searching for the enemy.

When meeting with the enemy, groups take up battle formation for attack.

§ 210. Tactics of the strike group.

When detecting enemy bombers flying under the cover of fighters, it is necessary:

Take the starting position for the attack;

The first attack is to try to break up the battle formation of the bombers;

Prevent the enemy from reaching the target;

Subsequent attacks destroy it piece by piece.

§ 211. If a large group of bombers is echeloned in depth, then it is advisable to attack with the entire group; if the group is small, the attack is made in pairs from different directions. If our covering group is unable to pin down all enemy fighters in battle, then it is necessary to split a couple of aircraft from the strike group to pin down the enemy’s direct covering group.

§ 212. Tactics of the cover group.

The main task of the group is to pin down the enemy's covering fighters and thereby enable the strike group to complete its task.

The covering group should not get involved in a long battle with enemy fighters, but should support the actions of the strike group with short strikes.

The covering group should approach the enemy before the strike group in order to engage enemy fighters in battle and allow the strike group to approach the enemy bombers.

§ 213. Tactics of a free maneuver pair (reserve).

The free maneuver (reserve) pair, being higher than all the other fighters, from above, with short strikes and subsequent upward movement, destroys separated enemy aircraft and does not allow enemy fighters to achieve superiority over our fighters during the battle.

A pair of free maneuver (reserve) must promptly come to the aid of comrades who find themselves in a difficult situation.

§ 214. Squadron patrolling under continuous cloud cover at medium altitudes.

The squadron's formation of battle remains the same as in clear weather. In this case, a pair of free maneuver (reserve) walks under the lower edge of the clouds and eliminates the possibility of a surprise attack from enemy aircraft from behind the clouds on the groups below.

To view the airspace under the clouds, the pair maneuvers in a vertical plane up to 300 m (see Fig. No. 43).

§ 215. In cases where a protected object is expected to be attacked by FV-190 fighters as attack aircraft, the formation of combat formations of patrolling fighters should be based on the characteristics of the FV-190’s actions against ground targets.

An attack on ground targets by the FV-190 is based on the possibility of sudden and rapid penetration of an object, a minimum time spent above the target, the use of an attack by several groups under the cover of a squad of fighters, and evading pursuit in low-level flight, using the maximum speed obtained near the ground.

§ 216. For a more effective fight against FV-190 attack fighters, the battle formations of patrolling fighters must also be built in 2-3 tiers, but the heights of the tiers should be “significantly reduced.

The lower tier patrol should operate at altitudes of no more than 400-500 meters, and the upper tier patrol should operate at altitudes of 1300-1500 meters.

The choice of the indicated heights for patrols is determined by the following:

FV-190s more often approach a guarded object on a low-level flight, they must be intercepted and attacked by aircraft of the lower tier, and the aircraft of the upper tier in this case must protect the aircraft of the lower tier from possible attacks by enemy covering fighters.

If FV-190 attack aircraft approach a protected object at altitudes of 1000-1500 meters, then they should be intercepted and attacked by upper-tier aircraft.

§ 217. When organizing patrols with a mixed group of fighters, the following must be kept in mind:

for Yak-3 aircraft, which have superiority over the FV-190 (latest modifications) in maneuverability and rate of climb, it is better to attack them and force them to fight before approaching a guarded object, and for LA-7 aircraft, which have an advantage over the FV-190 in maximum speed, It is more profitable to attack them as they approach the target and pursue the retreating enemy.

AIR COMBAT DURING BOMBER ESCORT

§ 218. An air battle between a squadron and enemy fighters accompanied by bombers (attack aircraft) at medium altitudes should be organized on the following principles (option):

§ 219. Escort of bombers and attack aircraft is used during active counteraction to enemy aircraft on the flight route and over the target.

The number of escort fighters depends on the expected enemy opposition and the size of the group being covered. Usually, to accompany nine bombers, an escort of fighters as part of the squadron is dressed up.

§ 220. The squadron’s order of battle must be composed of three groups:

Direct cover groups;

Strike group;

Pairs of free maneuver (reserve) (see Fig. No. 44).

The direct cover group is made up of a flight; one pair, led by the flight commander, goes 200 m ahead and 200 m above, with an interval of 200 m from the flank bomber flight.

The second pair moves at an interval of 200 m from the flanking flight of bombers, has a 200 m drop and 200 m behind, with the task of eliminating attacks from the bombers from below.

If the flight is carried out in sunny weather, then the excess is the pair coming from the side opposite to the sun.

The main task of the fighters in the direct cover group is to prevent the escorted aircraft from being attacked by enemy fighters, therefore the fighters flying in the direct cover group should not leave their places for a long time.

Combat tactics in such conditions mainly consist of short cutting attacks without pursuing the enemy.

§ 221. The strike group consists of 6 aircraft and, led by the squadron commander, is located 500-800 m behind at an interval of 400 m and with an excess of 500-800 m.

Above 1000 m there is a pair of free maneuver (reserve), allocated from the strike group.

In sunny weather, the strike group follows the bombers from the direction opposite to the sun.

§ 222. The location of the strike group on the side of the sun in the alignment does not make it possible to detect in advance the enemy attacking from the side of the sun, due to which the enemy has the opportunity to either pass the strike group at high speed in a dive or even attack successively fighters and then bombers.

Calculations show that if the strike group is located on the side opposite to the sun, it is able to timely detect an enemy attacking from the direction of the sun and repel its attack. So, when exceeding 500 m, an interval of 400 m and behind 400 m, if fighters detect the enemy at a distance of 1200 m, diving at an angle of 60°, during the turn towards the enemy - 5 seconds, the enemy will cover a distance of 830 m, the total the approach speed is 248 m/sec., the time of approaching the enemy to a distance of 100 m is 9.5 sec., at a distance from the bombers = 400 m, where they will arrive by the time our fighters approach and meet the enemy fighters. This means, at the location. groups from the side opposite to the sun, even if the enemy is detected late (1200 m), they have the opportunity to repel his attack on the covered group. If the strike group follows from the direction of the sun, then it should not be in alignment with the sun.

§ 223. The strike group has the task of pinning down enemy fighters in battle and thereby eliminating the possibility of attacks on bombers.

The actions of strike group fighters must be proactive, decisive and active.

When conducting combat, strike group fighters must not break away from the escorted aircraft. When approaching the area of ​​operations of escorted aircraft, the strike group moves forward, borders the area, or moves towards the most likely appearance of the enemy.

The free maneuver (reserve) pair performs the same tasks as during patrol.

Lagging aircraft must be covered by fighters from the strike group.

§ 224. When escorting two nine bombers by a squadron, the escort is formed in two groups: eight aircraft as a direct cover group and four aircraft as a strike group (option).

The groups' actions will be defensive in nature and based on fire interaction with escorted aircraft.

The strike group repels the attack of enemy fighters with short cutting attacks, without breaking away from the escorted group.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING AN AIR COMBAT MASTER PILOT

Air combat, as we know, consists of maneuver and fire.

A fighter pilot who has perfect command of the maneuvers and fire of his aircraft is a pilot-master of air combat.

A fighter pilot, while in the air, must always imagine the threat of being attacked.

The motto of a flight in combat conditions should be: search-attack-communication-rescue.

The basic formula of modern air combat: altitude-speed-maneuver-fire.

In order to successfully conduct an air battle in order to destroy the enemy, a fighter pilot must be able, first of all, to competently and skillfully prepare a “workplace”, detect the enemy first and, in the process of approaching, achieve tactical advantages and, first of all, surprise of attack and superiority in altitude . Having discovered the enemy first, the pilot eliminates the possibility of a surprise attack from the enemy and gets the opportunity to suddenly and, as a rule, attack and destroy the enemy with impunity. A visible enemy is not scary, but an invisible one threatens defeat. The superiority in altitude achieved during the rapprochement process makes it possible to seize the initiative of the battle into one's own hands and forestall the enemy in maneuver and attack.

For the offensive tactics of our high-speed fighters, the main maneuver is the vertical maneuver, the offensive maneuver. And the basis of vertical maneuver is precisely height and speed.

Therefore, the task of a fighter pilot is to master the art of gaining altitude, translating altitude into speed and vice versa. The quality of vertical maneuver is greatly influenced by knowledge of the flight-tactical capabilities of your aircraft and the ability to use them to the fullest.

Destruction of the enemy by fire is the ultimate goal of the battle. Therefore, a complex and often lengthy maneuver is carried out in the interests of fire and is aimed at one goal: to open aimed fire and destroy the enemy, which means that if the pilot does not master the maneuver perfectly, then he is not able to open aimed fire and, conversely, as if the pilot did not maneuver skillfully - this will do nothing if the pilot is not an excellent shooter and does not know how to hit the enemy for sure.

The pilot must be able to complete the maneuver in such a way as to bring the aircraft towards the enemy and, having introduced only a minor correction, open aimed fire.

The maneuver must be meaningful and meaningful in relation to the fire.

To conduct a successful battle, a fighter pilot must have an excellent knowledge of the enemy’s equipment and tactics. This makes it possible to confidently approach the enemy and hit him in the most vulnerable places for sure.

Fighter pilots must be excellent at communicating continuously and effectively. Interaction is the best defense against enemy attacks and should be based on mutual assistance, assistance, and support.

The favorable course of the battle is greatly influenced by the pilot’s initiative, the rejection of the template in actions, the stencil. An enterprising pilot is a pilot who acts deeply meaningfully, in accordance with the situation; he is a pilot of quick, bold decisions and actions, constantly looking for new tactical methods of combat; he is a pilot who acts swiftly and decisively, bringing attacks persistently to a decisive end. The pilot must not mechanically, not formally, but creatively approach the solution of all issues that unexpectedly arise in a fleeting battle.

Combat mastery is ensured by knowledge of the principles of air combat, creativity, intelligence, and plus excellent training.

Thus, the training of an air combat master pilot should be based on practicing:

1) continuous search for the enemy and combat with him, which ensures active action and a pronounced offensive spirit of the fighter pilot;

2) the ability to achieve stealth approach for a surprise attack, as the best means of achieving victory;

3) the ability to achieve superiority in height in the process of approaching and seizing the initiative in battle, the ability to impose one’s will on the enemy;

4) excellent piloting technique, the ability to control the machine perfectly in order to play with it, the ability to make all the figures that the aircraft is capable of performing. There are no non-combat figures. Any piece or part of it can make up the necessary maneuver in battle;

5) high fire skill. The pilot's ability to destroy the enemy with the first attack. Ability to be a master of the first attack;

6) the ability to perfectly organize interaction, maintain one’s place in the battle formation, and not break away under any circumstances;

7) constant combat improvement. Excellent knowledge of enemy tactics, our tactics and the experience of advanced pilots-masters of air combat, searching for new forms of combat and imposing them on the enemy, without stopping there. There is no limit to skill. Weakened cultivation means falling behind, and those who are lagging behind are beaten;

8) the strictest demands on oneself, iron military and flight discipline, which is the basis for success in battle;

9) instilling in the pilot love and devotion to his people, the Fatherland, the Party, the will to win, contempt for death, moral and physical fortitude.

Preparation should be based on:

a) studying the experience of the Patriotic War, studying the experience of advanced pilots-masters of air combat;

b) practicing all the elements on the ground, on training equipment and bringing them to automaticity;

c) practicing all elements in the air, bringing flight conditions as close as possible to combat conditions;

d) systematic and deep work of the listener on himself under the guidance and control of educational officers.

PROGRAM STAGES OF TRAINING FOR AN AIR COMBAT MASTER PILOT

The entire process of training a pilot-master of air combat consists of two periods:

1) The period of theoretical training;

2) The period of practical training.

The period of theoretical training includes the following: a student entering the school takes introductory tests, the purpose of which is to determine the student’s actual knowledge of fighter tactics in general and especially knowledge of air combat techniques.

After this, the student undergoes a 54-hour program on the theoretical foundations of air combat tactics, studying enemy aircraft, and passes course tests. The trainee then joins the squadron for practical training.

The period of practical training consists of three main stages:

1) the stage of studying the student by pilot educators;

2) the stage of testing the student in the air and practicing piloting and shooting techniques;

3) The stage of training separately in individual techniques of air combat, training in a combination of individual techniques and free creative air combat.

The first stage consists of the following: a student who has entered the squadron, after being assigned to groups, is studied by the instructor and in personal conversations.

The instructor identifies the student’s knowledge, his preparation, what he is capable of and what he needs to learn. Careful study and knowledge of the listener by the instructor and a strictly individual approach to each is a prerequisite for successful training.

The second stage consists of the following: the instructor studies and checks the student in the air, makes sure that the information about the student is correct, determines the quality of the piloting technique, points out the mistakes made by the student, and eliminates them by demonstrating and training the student.

In total, the student receives 12 control flights with a flight time of 3 hours 35 minutes (1 section of the program)

After this, the student, under the guidance of an instructor, polishes his personal piloting technique. For which 36 flights are allocated with a flight time of 7 hours 35 minutes, and he practices shooting at air and ground targets, for which 16 flights are allocated with a flight time of 8 hours (Section 2 of the program).

Thus, by the time the pilot begins practicing the elements of air combat, he must already have sufficient command of the maneuvers and fire of his aircraft.

The third stage is as follows: the student practices individual combat techniques, maneuvering in the horizontal plane, a maneuver that excludes the possibility of aimed fire by the attacker, maneuver in the vertical plane; practices the skills of maintaining one's position during maneuvers in the vertical and horizontal planes, group flying, standard attacks on fighters and bombers, searching for the enemy and free air combat in the vertical plane of a creative nature with a combination of all elements of combat.

To practice these elements, the student performs 10 flights, with a flight time of 4 hours 10 minutes (exercises 20, 21, 22, 23). After this, the student begins to practice creative free air combat in complex flights. The student performs all complex flights against the backdrop of a tactical situation. Air combat is carried out during en-route flights, reconnaissance flights, to cover own ground troops, ground attack missions, and free flights in order to search for the “enemy” and fight with him.

Air battles are carried out with fighters and bombers of the “enemy”, including a battle with a build-up of forces by calling fighters from the airfield from the standby state.

To practice air combat in complex flights, the student performs 21 flights, with 15 hours of flight time, including the test exercise (exercise No. 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38).

On all sorties, and especially on complex flights, radio is used as much as possible to control the actions of fighters for communication both between aircraft and with the ground.

SAMPLE FLIGHT PLAN FOR A LISTENER

A student undergoing training at the Higher Officer School of Air Combat of the Red Army Air Force must build a flight plan according to the following principle:

1. Conduct each flight against a tactical background.

2. It is correct to combine caution with searching for the enemy.

The basic principles of prudence should be:

a) constantly see all aircraft in the air and correctly assess the air situation;

b) before changing direction in a horizontal or vertical plane, it is necessary to ensure the safety of the subsequent movement maneuver;

c) anticipate the maneuver of the enemy aircraft and plan your maneuver accordingly;

d) do not cover an aircraft in an air battle with your own aircraft, do not give it the opportunity to end up in a blind sector of vision;

e) the enemy is dangerous not the one who is in the field of visibility, but the one who is invisible. This is the golden rule for both training and real air combat;

f) if the aircraft is lost during air combat or piloting, it is necessary to perform such a maneuver that would guarantee the safety and speed of detection of the lost aircraft.

3. Monitor the operation of the engine with a short review of the dashboard.

4. Control orientation. Know your location.

5. Control the time spent in flight.

6. Know the actual fuel consumption and allowable flight time.

7. Maintain radio contact in the group and with the ground.

8. Maintain visual contact with the aircraft of your group, constantly see your aircraft.

SCHEME

students' report after completing the flight mission

After completing each flight, the student reports the following:

1. Weather conditions and working conditions.

2. The nature of the operation of the material part of the aircraft and the engine.

3. Air situation:

a) place and time of detection of aircraft;

b) course and altitude;

c) composition, type and quantity;

d) the nature of the action.

4. Ground situation:

a) the location and actions of FOR;

b) railway transportation, composition of railway trains, types of cars, direction of movement;

c) convoys - covered or open vehicles, with cargo or military units, direction of movement, number and type of vehicles;

d) horse-drawn transport – type of number of carts, direction of movement of carts;

e) military columns, direction of movement, number, what row of troops: tanks. Artillery, cavalry, infantry, etc.

5. How the flight mission was completed.

6. Willingness to complete the next task.

In addition to the above questions, the listener additionally reports after completing flight missions:

For section 1:

1. A detailed report on the technique of performing aerobatic maneuvers and their sequence of execution.

For section 2:

1. A detailed report on the construction of a maneuver when firing at a shield and a cone, as well as the distance of opening and stopping fire, the number of bursts, the height of the dive recovery or the range of avoidance of an air target when shooting at a cone.

For section 3:

1. A detailed report on the air combat, followed by a description and delivery to the instructor.

Includes various aerobatic maneuvers.

Tactics

Some tactics:

• sunset from the sun
• frontal attack

in the Red Army Air Force

A new tactical technique proposed by A.I. Pokryshkin was adopted - pendulum patrolling; the so-called Kuban whatnot was used.

The new tactics worked well, especially given the numerical superiority of enemy aircraft.

In the Luftwaffe with the Allies

• "Tate maneuver" (first used at the Battle of Midway)

Modern air combat

Close aerial combat as a phenomenon present in the context of any major conflict existed at least until 1992, although after World War II, developments in aircraft speed and the range of weapons made it obsolete. Modern aerial combat involves long-range weapons that can be used against an opponent long before what was previously understood as aerial combat. Homing missiles can be activated when the aircraft is much further from the target than when using a machine gun, and will automatically attempt to pursue the target.

Close-in air combat has now become a rare occurrence, but, nevertheless, all modern fighters still have cannon weapons for possible combat clashes. All fighters have a built-in cannon installation, with the exception of the F-35 variants B and C, in which the cannon is placed in a special hanging container.

Modern close air combat is called "aerial maneuvering" (eng. Air Combat Manoeuvring), which means attacking or evading one or more opponents.

Strategy

The armed forces of different countries, as a rule, try not to publicize their strategies, but indirect conclusions can be drawn about them based on the characteristics of their military equipment.

USA

When developing the main F-22 fighter, the following decisions were made:

• The engine was designed specifically to conceal jet blast; at the same time, it was necessary to abandon changing the thrust vector in all planes.
• The number of AFARs on the wings of the fighter was reduced to achieve greater stealth; however, this affected the target detection range.
• All US projects to create long- and ultra-long-range air-to-air missiles were curtailed and only missiles that could fit in the internal compartments of fighter aircraft for greater stealth began to be developed - these are mainly medium- and short-range missiles (however, the radius of modern air-launched airborne missiles USA exceeds 120 km).

It can be assumed that the US strategy consists of a stealthy approach (with the on-board radar turned off, according to the AWACS aircraft) and destroying the target at close range, since the probability of destroying a target at close range is higher than the probability of hitting a target from long distances. And after destroying the target, the fighter quietly leaves the scene of hostilities.

Russia

Russia, on the contrary, probably seeks to detect and destroy enemy targets from a long distance and, if possible, safe for fighters.

• When designing the PAK FA, a lot of attention was paid to avionics, sometimes to the detriment of the fighter’s stealth, but at the same time the enemy detection range increased.
• Development of KS-172 missiles, which are not able to fit into the internal compartments of a fighter, which makes the fighter more visible. But at the same time, the missiles have an unsurpassed range (up to 400 km); the range of destruction of this missile is several times greater than the range of the missiles used on the F-22 and F-35.

All these strategies are only hypothetical; there are a lot of indicators in them, such as training battles, that were not taken into account and serious shortcomings are possible.

Tactics

see also

Sources

• Soviet military encyclopedia. - M., 1990. - T. 1. - P. 459-460.
• Shaw Robert L. Fighter Combat: Tactics and Maneuvering. - Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1985. - ISBN 0-87021-059-9
• series of programs “Air Combat” on the Discovery World TV channel

Links

• Television film “Battle for Air” from the “Great War” series (Channel One, 2010)

Notes

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

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Air battle- conducted by single aircraft (single combat) or groups (group combat) with the goal of destroying the enemy and repelling his attacks. V. b. The main form of action of a fighter aircraft includes: approach, attack (one or more), maneuvering between... ... Glossary of military terms

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I read and analyze a lot of air combat tactics during World War II. Where does what come from and where does it go?

The basic rules of air combat were first formulated by a German pilot and tactician during the First World War.

These rules went down in history under the name Dicta Boelce. Here are the 8 rules, as they were formulated and in order of importance:

1. 1. Try to attack from above. If possible, you should keep the sun behind you.
   2. Once you start an attack, don't stop it.
   3. Shoot only from a short distance when the enemy is already in your sights.
   4. Don't lose sight of the enemy and don't fall for tricks.
   5. Whatever attack you make, approach the enemy from behind.
   6. If you are attacked from above, do not try to dodge, but go into a frontal attack.
   7. When flying over enemy territory, do not forget which way to go.
   8. Squadrons: It is best to attack in groups of four or six aircraft. If the group breaks up, try to avoid situations where several people are flying on the same plane.

The first rule, the most important, gives the attacker an advantage. Firstly, the experience of all air battles, both in the First World War, in the Second World War, and after the world wars, statistically confirms: in 90% of cases, the pilot of a downed plane did not see the attacking enemy and did not know about his approach. Coming into an attack from above, against the backdrop of the sun, which blinds the enemy pilot, ensures stealth. By the way, this is also the basis for the use of stealth technology as the main feature of fifth-generation fighters. But then there were no radars or stealth technologies. Pilots could only rely on their eyes and had to constantly turn their heads. Therefore, pilots wore silk scarves to protect their necks from chafing.

And this same rule was developed by another famous German pilot, Max Immelman.

The name of this pilot is widely known because he invented one of the most widely known aerobatic maneuvers, named after him - the Immelmann Loop (or Immelmann Turn).

The ideas of Immelmann and Boelcke were developed by perhaps the most famous ace of the First World War, Baron Manfred von Richthofen, also known as the Red Baron (after the color of his fighter, the Fokker Dr. I triplane (do not confuse - Fokker is a Dutch company and has nothing to do with the fighter Focke Wulf)

Fokker did not have greater speed than his opponents, but had a very good rate of climb for those times, which the Red Baron took advantage of, transferring the air battle from horizontal turns to vertical ones. Richthofen commanded a squadron (staffel), in which he trained the best pilots to conduct vertical combat, for which this squadron was nicknamed Richthofen's Air Circus by its opponents. Analysts believe that the Red Baron's incredibly large (for those times) tally of victories (74 confirmed, 83 including unconfirmed) is explained precisely by the fact that he mastered the art of vertical combat. Both Ernst Udett and Hermann Goering were his students.

Reviving German military aviation, creating the Luftwaffe, his students followed the precepts of the teacher, relying primarily on the advantages of fighters in vertical combat, this was taught to German pilots persistently and for a long time, and the quality of vertical maneuver became fundamentally important when ordering new fighters to designers. A fighter, of course, needs high speed, but it is equally important to have a high service ceiling and the highest possible rate of climb. The one who gains altitude faster and can rise higher has every chance of winning in an air battle.

If an enemy who is inferior in the speed of climb and the ceiling tries to pull after you, he will run out of steam sooner and fall in an uncontrolled fall - turn around and shoot him, like in a shooting gallery. And, if the enemy does not dare to pursue you vertically, you will take a higher position and will be able to gain greater speed in a dive so that, as Pokryshkin later said, you will fall from above with a “falcon strike.”

If you look at the beginning of the Second World War, the Soviet I-16s were not very inferior to the Messerschmitts in speed. Although, on paper, the Messers had a significantly higher speed, in fact, at speeds above 520 km/h they became almost uncontrollable, since the forces on the control handle reached 45-55 kg. At the same time, Ishachok had very significant advantages over the Bf-109 in horizontal maneuver. But in a vertical maneuver... The climb speed of the I-16, even manufactured in 1940, even “on paper,” did not exceed 14.7 m/s. In fact, Donkey didn’t pull even that. But for the Messerschmitt Bf-109D (Dora) this figure actually reached 16 m/s. And, although on paper Ishachok had a ceiling of 9800 m, in reality, already at an altitude of 4 km its non-turbocharged engine lost power and began to choke. And there was no oxygen equipment. Messer had a practical ceiling not on paper, but in reality, even in 1941 there was a 10-kilometer limit and the pilot used oxygen equipment.

Trained in the principles of vertical combat tactics, Luftwaffe fighters easily tore the unfortunate Donkeys to shreds. However, these same problems remained until the very end of the war for all Soviet fighters, except for the Lendlease Cobras.

The engines of Soviet aircraft were made on the basis of licensed American and French engines of the first half of the 30s. These engines were “improved” from time to time by boosting them, but they never received turbocharging. And the “improvements” led to a decrease in engine life and emissions of oil that flooded the cockpit glazing. In addition, due to a critical shortage of aluminum, until the very end of the Second World War, all Soviet fighters had a wooden or mixed structure and were covered with percale. At speeds over 550 km/h, the fighters “undressed” - the skin began to “sail”, it was torn off and the plane simply fell apart. That is, a couple of aircraft could still be prepared for state tests, but aircraft of a completely different quality arrived in combat units. The story is known how, just before the start of the Battle of Kursk, almost all the Yaks at the front turned out to be so “undressed” and Stalin almost shot Yakovlev, calling him a “hidden Nazi”.

The insufficient rate of climb forced the introduction of the so-called “Kuban whatnot” - the fighters flew in several echelons in altitude, which should have deprived the Germans of any chance of vertical maneuver. But for the effectiveness of such a formation, coordination of the actions of fighters at different altitudes was required. Unfortunately, it is only in “war movies” that Soviet pilots chatter madly on the radio. Until the middle of 1944, a transceiver radio station was installed on only 1 Soviet fighter out of 10, and the remaining 9 had only a receiving station. Again, the exception was Lendlease fighters.

Few people know that the Germans had the maximum number of fighters on the Eastern Front in 1941. On June 22, in combat readiness, along the entire front “from the White to the Black Sea,” the Luftwaffe had slightly less than 900 Messerschmitt 109s and very few 110s. Subsequently, the Germans transferred part of their aircraft to the West and North Africa. So on the entire Eastern Front, almost until the end of the war, they had less than 4 “Jagdeshwader” - fighter squadrons. For reference, the standard number of Luftwaffe Jagdeshwader fighters is up to 150 aircraft. That is, the total number of German fighters on the Eastern Front fluctuated at different times from 450 to 650. All other German fighters “worked hard”, repelling Allied air raids on the cities of their own country. It happened that more fighters simultaneously took off to intercept the next armada of Fortresses and Liberators than fought on the Soviet fronts. The Americans during the day and the British at night often carried out raids with “thousands of bombers”, accompanied by hundreds of fighters. How else could anything be done if not to meet them with at least 700 fighters? But even without fighter cover, a strategic bomber is by no means an easy prey. Hans Philipp, who had combat experience on both the Eastern and Western Fronts, wrote:

Fighting with two dozen Russian fighters just waiting to be stung, or with English Spitfires was a joy. No one thought about the meaning of life. But when seventy huge “Fortresses” are flying at you, your entire sinful life flashes through your memory in a matter of seconds.

It is therefore not surprising that the vast majority of Luftwaffe fighters never appeared on the Eastern Front. It's scary to think what would have happened otherwise. It is known that the ratio of victories in battles between Red Army and Luftwaffe fighters fluctuated in different periods from 4.7:1 to 6.5:1, unfortunately, not in favor of the Soviet Air Force. Moreover, the worst indicators occurred in the period from the summer of 1943, when, as Soviet propagandists told us, “our pilots learned to fight and the planes became no worse than the enemy’s planes.”

They haven’t learned a damn thing and the planes haven’t gotten any better... There are just more of them and Eric Hartman’s colleagues have more targets in the air.

The nature of aviation operations on the Eastern and Western fronts was also fundamentally different.

On the Western Front, the Luftwaffe first tried to defeat Britain by sending armadas of its bombers accompanied by fighters to English cities. They were flying at a fairly high altitude and the British fighters had to fly high to counteract the German raids. That's why the British abandoned the American Aircobra they initially liked so much - it lacked the altitude.

Then the game began with a different goal and the American armadas of B-17 and B-24 attacked Germany, again at altitudes of about 8-9 km. They were accompanied by fighters - first the P-47 Thunderbolt, then the P-38 Lightning, and then the P-51 Mustang. All of these fighters had a very high altitude and were significantly superior to the Bf-109 and FW-190 at the altitude where the bombers were flying. So the Thunderbolt, which the USSR did not like, at an altitude of 7.5 km, in horizontal flight could accelerate to 740-750 km/h. Only the jet fighters that the Luftwaffe introduced towards the end of the war could fly faster, but they were not enough to seriously counteract Allied raids. In addition, by the middle of 1944, through massive bombing, the Allies caused a sharp drop in Germany's production and fuel reserves. If tanks were still able to run on synthetic gasoline, then airplanes needed high-octane gasoline or highly purified kerosene, and sources of oil...

The Thunderbolt proved to be a very powerful opponent for the Luftwaffe fighters, but they lacked the combat radius to accompany the bombers to their target. Where it had the range, it was a powerful air superiority fighter. It is no coincidence that the term “thunderbolt fear” appears in the war logs of Jagdeshwader 53, during the battles over Sicily and Italy. American pilots, taking advantage of their advantages in speed and altitude, attacked German fighters, literally flooding them with streams of lead - each Thunderbolt had 8 12.7 mm machine guns. At the same time, the P-47s themselves turned out to be extremely durable and survivable.

When the bomber armadas went beyond the P-47 escort, they were attacked by Messers and Focke-Wulfs. This continued until the Fortresses received Mustangs to accompany them. Hermann Goering literally said the following at the Nuremberg trials: “... when I saw Mustangs over Berlin, I realized that the war was lost.” This must be understood in such a way that bombers over the capital are half the trouble (they can be opposed by air defense fighters), but if they come with an escort of fighters, then that’s all - you can drain the water.

On the Eastern Front, the aviation strategy was different. Only once did the Germans carry out massive strategic bombing from a high altitude - before the start of Operation Citadel, they bombed the Gorky Automobile Plant and a number of other factories in the Volga region. This was a very serious blow and Soviet air defense fighters were powerless to repel it or even somehow weaken it. Otherwise, the air war took place at medium and low altitudes - classic actions of front-line aviation. Accordingly, Soviet fighters operated at the same medium and low altitudes. And they clearly lacked the rate of climb. With the exception of the Yak-3 and Aircobra. But the Yak had a very small combat radius and relatively weak weapons, which reduced its combat effectiveness. But the Cobras had a very good rate of climb, were excellent in maneuverability, and were very, very heavily armed. A 37 mm cannon and 4 Brownings of 12.7 mm caliber are very powerful. In fact, the Aircobra became the weapon with which Soviet pilots were able to beat the Germans in their native element of vertical combat. Moreover, the Cobras had excellent two-way voice communication radios and could perfectly coordinate their actions. And heights up to 6 kilometers were Cobras’ home.

It is not true that German pilots received a radio warning that Pokryshkin was in the air. But it is documented that the "Cobra in the air" warning was broadcast regularly. The Luftwaffe command preferred not to get involved with Cobras unless absolutely necessary.

Another factor: weapons.

Fighters need guns to shoot down bombers. But the guns have little ammunition. Therefore, the British, fighting off raids by Luftwaffe bombers, armed their Hawker Hurricanes with as many as four 20-mm cannons. The bomber does not maneuver and is significantly slower than the fighter. You can get close to it, you can hold it in your sights for a long time and blow it to pieces with short bursts of 20 mm cannons without wasting a lot of shells. But with machine guns it will take a long time to hack at it. Spitfires, on the contrary, were intended for combat with fighters and therefore were initially armed with 8 machine guns. You can carry quite a lot of cartridges for pellet guns - an enemy fighter in a maneuverable battle does not hang in the sight for a long time, it needs to be watered with a hose, like, maybe I get hit - then a dense stream of lead will tear apart the engine or wing.

The Americans almost never had to fight enemy bombers. Therefore, they very rarely installed cannon weapons on fighters. Actually, the P-38 Lightning and P-39 Aircobra had one gun each. But they were always accompanied by four 12.7-caliber machine guns.

In addition to the Thunderbolts, Lightnings, Aircobras and Mustangs listed above, the United States produced several more types of fighters during WW2: the P-40 Warhawk, F4F Wildkat, F6F Hailcat and F4U Corsair. Except for the P-40, all of them were carrier-based fighters, and all of these fighters were armed only with heavy machine guns, 6 barrels each. Experience in combat with fighters has shown that dense machine-gun fire is more effective than rare cannon fire, and armor-piercing incendiary cartridges of 12.7 mm caliber are quite sufficient for torpedo bombers, light and medium bombers.

Below I present a table of some tactical and technical characteristics of fighters from different countries that took part in WW2:

Fighter	A country	Max Speed	Pract. ceiling	range	Rate of climb
	km/h	m	km	m/s
La-5FN	USSR	648	11000	765	16.7
Yak-3	USSR	655	10700	650	18.5
Yak-9U	USSR	672	10650	675	16.7
Spitfire Mk-VII	GBr	650	13100	1060	19.7
Messershmitt Bf-109G-6	Germany	640	12000	850	17
Fokke-Wolf FW-190 D9	Germany	685	12000	835	17
P-51D Mustang	USA	708	12800	2755	16.3
P-47N	USA	750	13100	1900	16.15
P-39Q Aerocobra	USA	626	10700	840	19.3
P-38L Lightning	USA	666	13400	2100	24.1

We must remember that most of the characteristics of Soviet aircraft are “paper”. That is, obtained during testing of specially prepared specimens, filled with high-quality gasoline and good (most often American) oil. Not a single serial Soviet fighter in combat conditions showed either such an altitude or such a speed; more voracious production engines running on low-quality gasoline and with bad oil, of course, did not allow either the declared range or rate of climb. All other fighters in real combat conditions showed exactly the same results, and sometimes even higher. Thus, some American pilots squeezed up to 720 km/h out of their Lightnings in horizontal flight, and during a dive, this machine could accelerate to “high subsonic speed,” causing it to lose control due to the effect of air compressibility on the control surfaces. Therefore, the P-38 was eventually equipped with automatic air brakes, like those on dive bombers.

There are characteristics that are difficult to express in numbers. For example, the concentration and density of the salvo. The weapons located on the wings were adjusted so that the routes converged at a certain distance. And on the Lightning, all 5 firing points (20-mm cannon + 4 12.7-caliber machine guns) were installed tightly in the forward part of the fuselage and adjusted for parallelism of the tracks. Therefore, at any distance, the entire salvo fell on a small area, delivering a completely crushing blow. There are photographs of a machine gun, which show how, when delivering an assault strike, the locomotive turns over. One can imagine what such a strike would do to any aircraft.

In general, the Lightning turned out to be the only extremely successful two-engine fighter of WW2. This fighter was flown by the best American ace, Richard Iroh Bong, who had 40 confirmed and 18 “probable” victories in air battles. The Americans considered probable victories such cases when the machine gun tape shows that the target was damaged to the point of destruction, but there is no evidence of the enemy aircraft crashing. For example, if the camera gun shows that an enemy aircraft has broken away and is falling apart, but there is no evidence of it crashing, then victory is considered "probable." Bong could have had even more victories, but in April 1944 he was recalled to the USA to train young people. Then he returned to the front for a short time, but in December he was finally returned to the States as a tester at Lockheed.

The Germans called the P-38 "devil's pitchforks" and were seriously afraid of fighting with them. In the vertical, neither the Me-109, even the latest modifications, nor the FV-190 had any chance. Latning had a champion rate of climb of more than 24 m/s, and German fighters only 17. 7 m/s difference in the rate of climb... It’s like a car driving past a standing person at a speed of about 25 km/h.

Dmitry Drozdenko

They say that the best way to fight tanks is the tanks themselves. This postulate is valid for airplanes and helicopters. Nowadays a helicopter is an integral part of any army; it is a powerful and versatile weapon.

Who, why and why

Modern rotary-wing aircraft perform a wide variety of combat missions. Escort, landing and fire support for troops, transportation of troops, cargo and military equipment, conducting aerial reconnaissance, electronic warfare, patrolling, evacuation and the most discussed function - fighting tanks and other armored and protected targets. A helicopter is a very versatile machine.
It is logical to assume that the enemy will use helicopters and UAVs for similar purposes, and these helicopters and UAVs must be dealt with somehow. Of course, the presence of MANPADS systems and a layered air defense system in infantry units are good things, but they are not at all a panacea for attacks by modern helicopters.
By the way, the Americans were the first to think about helicopter air combat, who at that time had a large and very diverse helicopter fleet and had accumulated enormous combat experience in their use.
Initially, attack aircraft and fighters were supposed to be used to combat Soviet helicopters. But here the American strategists were disappointed - the plane turned out to be ineffective against a low-speed and inconspicuous target, which moves at an extremely low altitude and even against the thermal and radar background of the area. But the planes themselves, which fly higher by default, were clearly visible against the sky in all ranges.
Added to the difficulty of detecting a helicopter is the difficulty of destroying it. Almost any underlying surface or terrain conceals the heat signature from the engines, and the presence of various buildings and structures reduces the radar signature of a helicopter.
In fact, to combat the helicopters, the aircraft still has a cannon and a rocket launcher, which can be used to cover the helicopter’s flight path ahead of the movement, however, to do this you need to be a special skill in performing such tasks, and supersnipers and just lucky ones, as we know, are quite rare, although such cases have happened.
Among other things, the helicopter itself is no longer a defenseless target - an air-to-air missile, like Comrade Colt, compares the odds in an air battle. Let's add to this the helicopter's higher maneuverability in space and the presence of movable machine guns and cannons. Remember, an airplane is somewhat easier to see than a helicopter. After conducting many training battles and various situational simulations, it became clear that helicopters must fight enemy helicopters.

Thoughts of NATO generals

The helicopter-versus-helicopter concept has become established in the NATO armed forces. To implement it, it was initially planned to involve armed helicopters of all types. Then preference began to be given to machines specially modernized for this purpose. And what? The budget allows them.
In the United States, it was decided to adapt the light and maneuverable reconnaissance helicopters Bell OH-58 Kiowa and Hughes OH-6 Cayuse (the final version of the series is the Boeing AH-6 helicopter) for air combat. The vehicles received FIM-92 Stinger ATAS homing missiles with a thermal homing head on their pylons.
The ATAS (Air-to-Air Stinger) modification is a short-range air-to-air missile developed by General Dynamics in collaboration with McDonnell Douglas Helicopter specifically for arming light reconnaissance helicopters, fixed-wing aircraft and reconnaissance-strike UAVs. Also, these helicopters may have small arms and cannon weapons, which are located in special containers, i.e. motionless.

Nuances of weapons

Paradoxically, the main American attack helicopter AH-64D Apache Longbow does not have air-to-air missiles as part of its armament and for air combat will be forced to use the Hellfire ATGM (which is very difficult) and a 30-mm cannon on the nose movable turret.
But the US Marine Corps helicopters Bell AH-1J Sea Cobra and AH-1W Super Cobra are armed with air-to-air missiles. You can hang two old, but well-proven AIM-9L Sidewinders on the Supercobra pylons. The Americans have not forgotten the Black Hawk either; the UH-60 Black Hawk is armed with FIM-92 Stinger missiles.
But still, according to US textbooks, the priority of offensive air combat is given to light helicopters, which, like stinging wasps, must attack the enemy. Heavier helicopters of the AH-64 or UH-60 class, according to Pentagon regulations, follow defensive air combat tactics.
Our helicopter pilots have a slightly different approach to air combat. Russian cars are much more versatile in this regard. All modern attack helicopters (Mi-35M, Mi-28N and Ka-52) have mobile gun mounts, which in their parameters (range and accuracy) exceed those of American and European guns.
In addition to guns, the armament of the new generation Mi-28N and Ka-52 helicopters includes Igla-V air-to-air missiles, which in their characteristics are approximately the same as the main NATO FIM-92 Stinger complex, and as part of the anti-tank complex “Attack” includes the 9M220O missile, designed to destroy aircraft. It is equipped with a proximity fuse capable of reacting to an air target when flying from it at a distance of less than 4 m and a fragmentation warhead.
Russian helicopter air combat tactics, unlike American ones, are universal and include both offensive and defensive types. Although we all understand perfectly well that theory is theory, and real and fleeting air combat dictates its own rules.

Airplane vs helicopter

The experience of tests and exercises has shown that the actions of aircraft against helicopters were not effective enough. The main reasons are the difficulty of searching, identifying and attacking low-speed targets flying directly near the ground, as well as the impossibility of such actions in difficult meteorological conditions, since there is a significant difference in meteorological level between airplanes and helicopters, and not in favor of the former.
Helicopters fly very low, at extremely low altitudes, using the underlying surface, folds of terrain and various public and industrial objects for concealment. For example, a helicopter can, using its maneuverability, fly at extremely low altitudes - the outskirts of an area object, a forest, a coastline, or very rough terrain. It is difficult, or rather almost impossible, for an aircraft that a priori flies higher to carry out a missile attack on such an inconspicuous target. A radar attack will not have an effect due to the fact that there are many industrial (area) objects on the ground, a contrasting underlying surface that will interfere with the stable guidance of the missile, and even if the area is deserted, then at the first irradiation from the enemy radar the crew immediately understands where locates the source and takes maneuvers to disrupt the attack. For example, a helicopter can reduce its speed to the point of hovering and use the underlying surface to hide behind a fold in the terrain. Become inaccessible from the surveillance and target designation systems of enemy aircraft.
When attacking with missiles with a thermal seeker, a helicopter can use various means of detecting the enemy and causing jamming. For example, new Russian aircraft are equipped with the Vitebsk complex, which, by the way, is the best in the world in its class, or the Lipa complex, which is installed on old Mi-24s; shooting thermal traps also reduces the likelihood of a missile being hit. Also, the “visibility” of a helicopter in the IR range is reduced due to the use of screen-exhaust devices that mix hot exhaust gases with colder air, thereby reducing the overall exhaust temperature.
The helicopter can turn on a collision course with the aircraft, thereby reducing to a minimum the time for preparing and carrying out an attack on the part of the aircraft pilot, simply disrupting the attack, and then, having performed a combat turn, carry out a counterattack on the aircraft with its own missiles with a thermal seeker.
The first part of such a battle is very likely, the second is problematic, because... The pilot of the plane, having missed the helicopter, must immediately “step on the gas”, avoiding the attack. For a stable launch, a helicopter pilot needs to hold the target in sight for several seconds, but a competent fighter will not allow this.
It turns out that in an air battle “plane versus helicopter”, the former will mainly use guns, and here the advantage is given to a helicopter mobile gun mount, which will allow firing from different angles and the presence of air-to-air missiles. In principle, we can say that the plane is ineffective in the fight against a helicopter, of course, provided that both machines are modern.

Air target

The detection range of an airborne target (AT) depends on a number of factors, such as flight visibility, the presence of clouds, the position of the sun, the brightness of the color and size of the target, the brightness of the background of the underlying surface or sky, and the use of appropriate optics.
Thus, the detection range of small UAVs without the use of optical means is 500 - 2500 m. Light aircraft and helicopters against the background of various underlying surfaces can be detected at ranges of 1 - 6 km. At the same time, the maximum detection range, all other things being equal, is ensured in the case of searching for an air target against the background of a light sky or cloud cover, which is achieved when flying with a decrease relative to the expected flight altitude of the target. In some cases, it is advisable to periodically briefly gain a flight altitude of 100 - 150 m in order to expand the boundaries of the viewed space.
When searching for a target independently and in the absence of information about it, the greatest detection efficiency is achieved when searching on courses that intersect with the target. In this case, a pair of helicopters is capable of detecting a CC in a strip up to 10 km wide with a probability of 0.8.
The mode of approaching a target is mainly characterized by the probability of launching an attack, which should be understood as the ability of helicopter crews and units to enter the area of ​​​​use of on-board weapons:

• area of ​​possible launches (OPP) when using missiles;
• area of ​​possible shooting (OPS) when using NAR and SPO.

Helicopter vs helicopter

Now let's look at the "helicopter versus helicopter" tactics. Air battles can be divided by firing range, by the number of participants and by the nature of the battle. In terms of firing range, depending on the weapons installed on helicopters, avionics and the crew’s capabilities for visual or technical detection of the enemy, long-range, medium-range and close maneuver combat differ.
Transience. NATO believes that in the event of a helicopter-to-helicopter combat, they will primarily conduct close maneuver combat, and the crews will in most cases be in visual contact. Therefore, their main weapons should be short-range missiles and cannons. Our pilots also agree with this opinion, although there are certain issues on which they disagree with the Americans, but more on that later. In general, air combat is very fleeting, and close-range combat “compresses time to a point.”
Quantity and character. Depending on the number of participants, air battles can be group or single. In the process, a group battle, as a rule, breaks up into single battles. Therefore, when training helicopter pilots in air combat, the main focus is on practicing single combat. Well, the choice of the type of battle - offensive or defensive - depends on the tasks assigned to the crew, the nature of the enemy’s actions and other conditions. This is where the curve of fate and the experience of the pilots will lead.

Whoever stood up first gets the slippers

The ideal case is when the crew that first discovered the enemy manages to secretly enter the rear hemisphere of the enemy and launch a missile with a thermal seeker. Great, but in a real battle it’s better not to count on perfection, otherwise you won’t fly for long. If the enemy notices the attacker before the latter reaches the point of effective use of weapons, then a maneuver is performed to disrupt the attack, and the battle becomes close and maneuverable - face to face. The helicopters begin to vigorously maneuver to reach a safe zone and take an advantageous position for attack.
The determining influence on the probability of launching an attack is exerted by the direction and method of approaching the target, the choice of the attack start range and the speed of the attacker. According to Russian pilots, it is advisable to approach the enemy along a pursuit curve from directions close to oncoming and downstream, and also to choose the maximum missile launch range and the speed of the attacker in order to reduce the approach time.
The difference in launching an attack using ATGMs and air-to-air missiles is that approaching a target using air-to-air missiles is advisable to carry out the rear hemisphere of the enemy or attack from large angles, which ensures a greater range of air capture targets with the homing head. The low probability of launching an attack from the front hemisphere is explained by the fact that reaching the missile launch range will occur in conditions where the enemy detects attacking combat helicopters.
This allows the enemy to provide effective counteraction by launching a missile from maximum range, which will force the attacking crew to abandon the attack. At the same time, the probability of launching an attack using ATGMs and air-to-air missiles against transport-landing helicopters and light aircraft that do not have missile weapons is practically equal to 1.0.
The attacker, of course, has a potential advantage, but only at the very beginning, and his main task is to prevent the enemy from seizing the initiative. Approximation with the enemy to the range of effective use of small arms and cannon weapons by helicopter crews should be considered successful if it is carried out in the area of ​​possible fire (AOF). The dimensions and position of the combined forces relative to the target, as is known, depend on the initial position and maneuvering capabilities of the attacker towards the target. In this case, one should also take into account the target's ability to fire at the attacker. The most favorable directions when launching an attack using special fire protection against maneuvering enemy helicopters are the directions of approach at the initial heading angles of the target less than 50-60 degrees. and more than 110-120 degrees.
Similar close maneuver battles were fought by fighters in the First and Second World Wars, as well as in local conflicts of the 50s–70s, and the main weapons in them were machine guns and cannons.
Therefore, both they and we, when developing combat tactics for helicopters, widely used the experience of fighter aircraft of those ancient years. The basic, typical maneuvers of both group and single air combat were borrowed from the aircraft.

Study, study and study again…

Crews of military aviation helicopters begin training in air combat by practicing offensive and defensive combat maneuvers, first alone, and then as part of a pair. According to experts, a “cannon” battle, which is most likely in a fight, returns the pilot to the tactics of fighter aircraft during the Second World War and obliges him to clearly know the principles formulated by the experience of the past. The main principles of combat include the desire to have an advantage in height and flight speed, as well as to occupy an advantageous spatial position relative to the enemy.
The helicopter must enter the area of ​​possible attacks, located in the rear hemisphere and having limited dimensions, which are determined by the range and angle of effective firing. The use of missiles with a thermal seeker imposes its own specifics on the attack area, because the attacked helicopter must be a contrasting target, which means that the attacking vehicle must be either at the same altitude as it, or lower, and this must occur over several (5–6) seconds so that the missile's seeker can steadily lock onto the target. Agree, this is possible if the crew of the attacked helicopter does not suspect that they have come into their tail and are aiming a missile.
According to our tactics, the most effective attacks are on a catch-up course, tangentially from an angle of 1/3 to the right or left, on approaching parallels. Another option is possible when another aircraft participates in the battle, which carries out target designation and illuminates the target. Then it turns out that one machine is guiding the target, and another is launching the rocket. In this situation, a missile attack can be carried out from top to bottom, but this method requires close interaction between the crews in combat. Everything else, as experts say, is “from the evil one,” although it has the right to life.

Oh, experience, the son of difficult mistakes...

To gain a position advantageous for attack, helicopters perform a variety of maneuvers, the main goal of which is to enter the rear hemisphere of the enemy. There are quite a lot of attack options, but they all boil down to the following postulates: Enter the enemy’s rear hemisphere and prevent him from disrupting the attack by sharply reducing speed or turning around to take a counter course. To do this, a wide variety of maneuvers are used both horizontally and vertically: combat and forced turns (when the distance between opponents is minimal), a hill and a turn on a hill, an oblique loop, etc.
As combat experience shows, the number of typical maneuvers amounts to a couple of dozen. Therefore, the crew’s actions must be thoroughly tested in practice, so that in a combat situation the pilots can carry them out quickly and accurately, without hesitation or doubt. The goal is to develop a kind of reflex to the actions of the enemy.

Curves, slides and other delights of aerobatic aerobatics

In NATO, defensive air combat is considered the most typical for the crews of attack and transport helicopters, and offensive air combat for light ones. For defense, they have developed clear rules, the main one of which is to turn not “from”, but “towards” the enemy in order to quickly remove the latter from the area of ​​​​possible attacks of their helicopter. So, if the enemy is at a distance exceeding two turning radii, then it is necessary to perform a steady turn at a constant speed. If the distance to the attacking helicopter is minimal, then a forced turn is performed with intensive speed reduction and a decrease in radius. Of course, losing speed in a dogfight is bad, but getting out of the area of ​​possible attacks is much more important. Our helicopter pilots use exactly the same combat tactics, although there are differences in approaches. First of all, we do not have such a pronounced specialization of helicopters for air combat, and this is due not only to the fact that we do not have a separate class of light reconnaissance helicopters, but also to the very specificity of attack vehicles.

One two Three

Firstly, all our Mi-35, Mi-28N “Night Hunter” and Ka-52 “Alligator” attack helicopters are armed not only with powerful, mobile gun mounts, but also with air-to-air missiles with a thermal seeker, unlike from the main American AH-64D Apache Longbow helicopters. Naturally, the ammunition load includes ATGMs with both a radio command guidance system and a laser seeker.
Secondly, the avionics of helicopters fully corresponds to the capabilities of NATO vehicles, and this indicates that, in principle, the crews have the same capabilities for technical detection of enemy helicopters, including in difficult weather conditions. Of course, the Americans’ thermal matrices are of higher quality and have greater resolution, but the difference is not very significant to be decisive in battle.
Thirdly, despite the large take-off weight, our newest helicopters are more maneuverable than similar American ones at medium and low speeds. As an example, you can compare classmates: AH-64D Apache Longbow and Mi-28N “Night Hunter”. The Russian helicopter at medium and low speeds, despite its large mass, is easier to maneuver due to the greater spacing of the horizontal hinges of the main rotor hub. The arm between the hinges acts like a lever, creating a stronger control torque relative to the total weight of the machine.
It makes no sense to compare it with the Ka-52 Alligator - our helicopter is built according to a coaxial design, which gives it special aerodynamic qualities for maneuvering. Due to the absence of a tail rotor, the overall power supply of the helicopter increases and the directional control margin increases. Thanks to this, the machine can fly in modes inaccessible to single-rotor helicopters: sideways (side slip) up to a speed of 120 km/h and tail forward up to a speed of up to 150 km/h. This gives the helicopter special capabilities for tracking and attacking a target.
Of course, Russian heavy combat helicopters cannot compare with the maneuverability of small and light unarmored Kais, Caiuses and Boeings, but they can easily hit you in the neck. On the side of Russian helicopters are powerful and long-range rotary guns and serious armor, advanced avionics and excellent electro-optical protection, and, of course, missiles for air combat.

Affairs of past years

Everything that we have discussed up to this point is mostly theory, of course, based on combat experience. But helicopters had already fought before, both among themselves and even with airplanes. What were the results?
The Iran-Iraq military conflict became a real “helicopter lists”. On the Iraqi side, the Soviet Mi-24, Mi-8 and the French Gazelle took part in the hostilities, and the Iranian side was represented by a line of helicopters produced by the American company Bell Helicopter: the attack AN-1J Sea Cobra, the heirs of the famous Iroquois AB-214 and AB-412. During the fighting, all types of weapons were used, from cannons to ATGMs and anti-aircraft missiles, mostly missiles. The outcome of the battles was approximately equal.
Speaking of protection. In February 1986, an Iraqi Mi-24D “in the trash” shot a brand new Iranian Sea Cobra from a YakB 12.7. A return burst from a three-barrel 20-mm cannon left only dents on the Mi-24D’s armor.
Also in 1986, the Soviet Mi-24V, during a special operation to rescue Soviet military personnel captured by dushmans, destroyed a Pakistani AH-1W Super Cobra with a Strela missile.
1992, territory of the former USSR. Three almost identical helicopters fought in the skies of Abkhazia. A Mi-24VP helicopter from the Russian peacekeeping contingent responded to an attack by a pair of Georgian Mi-24Vs and shot down one of them with a 9M220O anti-aircraft missile from the Ataka complex.
In 1999, an old Yugoslav Mi-24V shot down the latest American attack helicopter AN-64D Apache Longbow and a transport UH-60 Black Hawk with a 9M114M2 missile from the Shturm complex. Oddly enough, it was the Longbow system locator that let the Americans down, using the passive bearing to which the Yugoslav pilot secretly approached. The simplest radiation warning system SPO-17 secretly brought the Yugoslav crew into firing range. When the Apache pilot saw the Mi-24 on his radar, it was already too late; the missile was on its way.
There are many such stories, and most of them say that luck is usually on the side of the one who finds the target first, that guided missiles are used more often than small arms and cannons, and that the experience and composure of the pilot is the main weapon in battle.

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(close combat on turns) is a phenomenon that appeared during the First World War. The fighting took place at short distances, with each side aware of the other's presence. Fighters in those days did not have a large number of weapons on board and planes could only fight each other using machine guns. Since machine guns were only useful at close range, the planes had to fly very close to each other to fight. The pilots had to fly with a lot of maneuvers to try not to be shot down or killed and to be able, in turn, to attack enemy aircraft.

Close aerial combat is a phenomenon present in the context of any major conflict, although after the Second World War the development of aircraft speed and the range of weapons made it obsolete. Modern aerial combat involves long-range weapons that can be used against an opponent long before what was previously understood as aerial combat. Homing missiles can be activated when the aircraft is much further from the target than when using a machine gun, and will automatically attempt to pursue the target.

Aircraft target designation system

An important element of air combat tactics was the new target designation system proposed A.I. Pokryshkin. The horizon in this system, 360 degrees around the aircraft, was represented as a clock face, with the number 12 at the nose of the aircraft. The clock indicated the direction. Altitude was indicated in degrees up or down from the horizon. New tactics justified itself well, especially in conditions of numerical superiority of enemy aircraft.

Air combat with German fighters

The material was prepared in the USSR in 1943 and was of the nature of a “manual for the pilot.”

Fight with Bf.109F and Bf.109G fighters (In the text, Russian designations of German Air Force aircraft are replaced by German ones)

The main type of fighter of the German Air Force is the Bf.109. Of the various variants of this aircraft, by the beginning of 1943 only two were in service: Bf.109F and Bf.109G (the latter's German designation was Bf.-109G-2). Let's analyze their flight data obtained by testing captured aircraft.

The maximum speed of the Bf.109F on the ground is 510 km/h at an altitude of 3000 m - 559 km/h; above 3000 m the speed of the Bf.109F begins to fall.

The maximum speed of the Bf.109F is approximately equal to the speed of an aircraft such as the Yak-1 fighter, and is inferior to its speed at altitudes above 3000 m. The Bf.109G fighter at altitudes above 5000 m has superior speed over most of our fighter aircraft and is inferior only to the latter their types.

It follows from this that in battle it is necessary to minimize this advantage of the enemy. With regard to speed, this must be done in two ways, and the first of them is a cultural attitude towards your car. In one unit, several pilots complained that their Yaks did not provide the required maximum speed. When their vehicles were checked, it turned out that due to incorrect adjustment of the propellers, the engine did not give full speed, the landing flaps in the retracted position had a gap of several millimeters from the trailing edge of the wing, the hatch covers and the landing gear fairings were poorly fitted and bulged in the air, camouflage the painting of the aircraft was uneven, with bumps, in addition, the pilots opened the outlet of the water radiator tunnel too much, the pilot's canopy in the air opened and closed with difficulty, as a result of which the pilots did not close the canopy in the air, etc. When all these shortcomings were eliminated, it turned out that the planes not only achieved the required maximum speed, but even exceeded it. Thus, neglecting your aircraft can artificially reduce its top speed.

The second way to reduce the enemy's advantages to zero is the correct one Soviet fighter tactics. The lack of speed, as has been said many times, is compensated by the advantage in height and the ability to increase speed by diving. Being higher than the enemy is one of the most important rules of air combat with fighters. Bf.109s, when meeting even fighters that are clearly inferior to them in speed (for example, Hurricanes), but located above them, are very reluctant to engage in battle, since they know that speed does not save them from an attack from above. In addition, you need to keep in mind that the Bf.109 fighter can achieve the above maximum speed in horizontal flight only for a very short time (1-2 minutes), after which the liquid in the engine cooling system boils. And this leads to the fact that if a German Bf.109 fighter meets our Yak-1 or La-5, which are located with a significant excess over it, then it cannot escape from them due to speed. Therefore, German pilots also try to start the battle from above, and their attacks in the overwhelming majority come down to a short attack from above with a steep climb upward after the attack. Rate of climb. The Bf.109F fighter reaches an altitude of 5000 m in 5.4 minutes. When compared with the data of the Yak-1 fighter, it is clear that the Bf.109F fighter has a better rate of climb to an altitude of 3000-3500 m, and the Bf.109G fighter, which has a higher altitude engine, is even higher. New types of our fighters have a climb rate better than the Bf.109G, up to an altitude of 4000 m, and some types - at all altitudes.

The rate of climb, as well as the speed, is very dependent on the excess. If the fighter is at the top, then after a dive attack it can give a huge rate of climb for a short period and go up an extremely steep hill.

This, by the way, creates a misconception among some pilots about the actual data of the German Bf.109 fighter. A pilot, seeing a Bf.109 rushing past him at high speed and flying away upward, sometimes does not take into account that all this is achieved not so much due to the qualities of the aircraft, but due to tactics, due to the advantage in altitude, which gives a sharp increase for a short period speed and rate of climb. Under the influence of personal impression, such a pilot often attributes non-existent, imaginary advantages to the Bf.109 - fabulous speed and rate of climb.

The combat experience of many pilots has shown that the fighters Yak-1, La-5, LaGG-Z, Kittyhawk, Airacobra, Hurricane and the like, fighting Bf.109 aircraft with an excess of several hundred meters, are excellent deal with them. At Stalingrad in the fall of 1942, even Chaikas were excellent at shooting down Bf.109s. The battle is decided by the correct tactics, in particular the ability to take an advantageous position from above for battle.

The horizontal maneuverability of the Bf.109 fighter is low. , it makes a turn in 20-21 seconds, but making steep turns on it is difficult - the plane easily buries itself in a turn, and therefore a sharp turn on the Bf.109 is rarely seen. German pilots do not fight on turns, because they know that those who take a turn lose the initiative in battle, giving it to the one who fights on a vertical maneuver. Initiative, as has already been said, is of great importance for air combat, so the transition to combat with maneuver in the horizontal plane cannot be recommended for our pilots either.

If for some reason a battle on turns does break out, then it is more expedient to conduct it on right turns, since most of our cars make a right turn better than a left one, and many German pilots, especially young ones, do not know how to make good right turns. Every fighter pilot must master the technique of performing a right turn. You should avoid moving from one turn to another if there is an enemy behind you, because at the moment of changing into another turn the plane is a very convenient target.

The Bf.109 fighter dives well, quickly picks up speed and easily breaks away from our fighters during a dive. In most cases, chasing a diving Bf.109 is unprofitable; it is better to stay at the top (lowering the nose of your aircraft only enough so as not to lose sight of the enemy) and attack the Bf.109 after it comes out of the dive. The Bf.109 fighter has a large aircraft draft when recovering from a dive. A steep dive with a low altitude recovery is difficult for the Bf.109 fighter. Changing direction during a dive and generally during an attack at high speed is also difficult for the Bf.109 fighter. If the attack requires making a significant turn, then the Bf.109 stops the attack and goes up in order to repeat the attack again. This feature of the Bf.109 is used in battle by some types of our fighters.

Fighter weapons

The Bf.109G fighter is equipped with two machine guns and one cannon, and the Bf.109G fighter is equipped with three cannons and two machine guns, all for firing only forward. The amount of ammunition on the Bf.109G fighter is 500 rounds per machine gun and 200 rounds per cannon, on the Bf.109G fighter - 500 rounds per machine gun and 200 rounds on the central cannon and 140 rounds on the wing guns.

In a battle with a bomber, the gunner is prevented from approaching close range, but in a battle with a Bf.109 fighter, the attacker’s fire does not prevent him from getting closer. Of course, it is best to open fire on an enemy fighter only from the shortest ranges, but this is only possible if the enemy does not see the attacker and gives him the opportunity to get closer. The faster the approach is made, the less likely it is that the attacker will be noticed. Hence the attacker’s desire to approach the intended target as quickly as possible.

During a battle, the enemy can come under fire at a wide variety of ranges and from any angle. This means that the fighter must be in a position for open fire from behind from a short range, but if this fails, he must be able to fire from a greater distance. If an attacking fighter is spotted, then, of course, the attacked will not wait until it is shot down, but will try to get out of the fire by some maneuver. But no matter what maneuver he uses, he will not be able to immediately give his plane a large angular movement - at this moment our fighter will still have the opportunity to hit the enemy plane, and we must not miss the opportunity to fire a burst at the enemy plane.

When attacking a Bf.109 fighter from the front hemisphere (especially the Bf.109G), one should take into account its strong forward fire. Attacks along the longitudinal axis from above the front can be carried out without opposition only in a steep dive, but they provide too little probability of hitting the enemy. A shallow dive directly in front gives the enemy the opportunity to lift the nose of the aircraft and meet the attack with fire. Considering that it will take the enemy more time to change direction in the horizontal plane than to change direction in the vertical plane, it is much better to conduct a front attack from the side at an angle of 1/4-2/4 from a gentle dive.

The use of MS against fighters is possible, but accurate shooting can only be achieved during the first attack, and then only under the condition of a covert approach to the enemy. Subsequently, the battle with fighters takes on such a fleeting and changeable character that RS shooting, which requires precise adherence to the firing range and proceeds from the assumption that the target is inactive, gives little hope of getting a hit. In addition, RS have significant weight and drag and, therefore, worsen the flight characteristics of the fighter. On I-16 and I-153 fighters it makes sense to use RS, but they should be fired not one or two at a time (as with bombers), but in salvoes of four shells with different tube deceleration settings (with intervals of 0.2 or 0. 4 seconds).

Ramming an enemy fighter is possible. This is evidenced by the fact that one Bf.109 was rammed on July 4, 1942 by Lieutenant Potapov. But such examples are still the exception.

Location of vulnerable spots and armor of the Bf.109

The weak points of the Bf.109 fighter - the engine, pilot and gas tanks - are located in the front part of the fuselage close to each other. The entire front half of the fuselage can be considered a weak spot. The only weak points in the wings are the water radiators. The area that these places occupy is significantly less than the area of ​​the bomber's vulnerable spots, so the range of actual fire on a fighter should be considered for a 20-mm cannon and a 12.7-mm machine gun to be no more than 300 m. The normal firing range, providing a good probability of hitting, is not more than 100 m. When firing from an angle greater than 0/4, the area of ​​vulnerable spots increases, but not as much as that of a bomber.

The armor of the Bf.109F fighter is shown in the figure. Against armor-piercing shells and large-caliber armor-piercing bullets, armor is practically ineffective and can be ignored.

The armor of the Bf.109G fighter is no different from that of the Bf.109F, except that behind the gas tank there is a solid 18 mm thick partition made of several layers of duralumin, designed to remove the incendiary composition from incendiary bullets. This partition cannot be considered armor, since bullets pass through it freely. In addition, during testing it was discovered that the partition did not achieve its goal and, on the contrary, only improved the effect of incendiary bullets.

The thickness of the Bf.109G cockpit armor is as follows:

• Headrest - 9.4 mm
• Back - 4.4
• Seat - 8

The armor protects the pilot from attacks directly from above (from the rear hemisphere) up to a dive angle of 45 degrees, and from below up to an angle of 35 degrees. The pilot is poorly protected from attacks from the rear; already at a side angle of 10 degrees, the armor only partially covers the pilot. The armor of the Bf.109G fighter is pierced by a medium-caliber armor-piercing bullet from a range of 100 m and by a large-caliber armor-piercing bullet (12.7 mm) from a range of up to 400 m. The transparent armor on the pilot's visor protects only from medium-caliber bullets; bullets from a 12.7 mm machine gun penetrate her.

The gas tank of the Bf.109F fighter holds fuel for a flight lasting up to two hours, the gas tank of the Bf.109G fighter - for one hour when flying at economic speed. At maximum speed and in combat, fuel is consumed very quickly - in a combat flight, the fuel on a Bf.109G fighter runs out in 40-45 minutes. The protector on the gas tank covers up to 20 bullet holes of medium caliber and 5-6 holes of 12.7 mm caliber.

An incendiary bullet hitting the space above the fuel level ignites gasoline vapors and ruptures the tank. The frost resistance of the tread turned out to be poor: in frosty weather the tread freezes, crumbles and does not heal bullet holes. Visibility is the weak point of the Bf.109 fighter. It is not without reason that this aircraft is considered the most “blind” of all types of fighters. The cockpit of the Bf.109 fighter is narrow, the canopy does not open in flight, and the armored headrest takes up a very large space at the rear. The most difficult thing for a Bf.109 pilot is to look straight back and back down. The Bf.109 pilot cannot see the enemy who has entered the tail.